Annotated Bibliography
for research published prior to 1999

 

Bibliography compiled by George Steele and Melinda McDonald. Annotated bibliographies of recent literature are published in each NACADA Journal.

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Allen, K. E. (1990). Creating a new agenda for student leadership development. Campus Activities Programming, 23, 56-61.

Background assumptions about leadership are challenged and ways of teaching leadership to college students are questioned. The emerging beliefs of leadership are that it will be practiced in a dynamic and constantly changing system. What may be important is the inner-development of values, ethics, world views, and beliefs of the potential leader.

Anderson, E. & Bogenschutz, M. (1993). Questionable ethical reasoning in the job search. Journal of career planning and employment, 53, 55-59.

Findings from 25 college seniors involved in focus-group discussions revealed that students followed some ethically questionable practices in their job searches, suggesting that they did not understand implications of their behaviors or roles and responsibilities of career services professionals and employers. Found that students acted egocentrically.

Annis, D. B. (1989, March). Professional ethics in education: A Neglected issue. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 304 799)

This paper discusses the professional ethics of education and what it requires. After an introduction, the second section deals with the nature of professional ethics, clarifying a variety of ethical principles. The defining traits of an education profession and the ethical issues involved are discussed. The third section focuses on common requirements of professional codes: a commitment to heightened standards of conduct; a commitment to competence; a commitment to diligence; the duty of reasonable communication; and the duty to report official misconduct. The fourth section applies the common requirements of professional codes to higher education. Appended are 27 reference notes.

Arena, L. E. (Ed.). (1985). Manhattan College Center for Professional Ethic Report, Spring 1985. Bronx, NY: Manhattan College. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 271 340)

Published once each semester by Manhattan College (New York), the report serves as a resource for faculty and students as they deal with professional ethical dilemmas and conflicts in their course work and work lives; it also helps to further the Center for Professional Ethics' basic purpose of promoting greater sensitivity to the ethical dimensions of professional life within society. The lead article in this issue, "Bishops' Pastoral: A Challenge to the American Conscience," by Marion Hunt, reviews the U.S. Catholic bishops' pastoral letter on economics and notes the Center's intention to provide opportunities for extended comments and reflection on the bishops' message. One such opportunity, a workshop in response to the pastoral, is announced in another part of the newsletter. Also in this issue are a detailed follow-up article by John R. Wilcox on a case study of an ethical dilemma published in the newsletter's first issue; an account of a Center-hosted computer ethics workshop; and a discussion of the classroom climate with regard to continuing disparities between male and female students.

Ashmore, T. M. (1989, May). Accessing electronic information: A question of ethics. Paper presented at the Meeting of the International Communication Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 314 094)

This exploration of ethical conflicts created by information technology and their impacts on teachers, scholars, and students begins by discussing the issue of fairness or ethics, with emphasis on what is fair or ethical in obtaining access to electronic information. Technological barriers involved in obtaining access to desired electronic information are then discussed, including the skill of the computer user and the costs of annual membership fees for belonging to national and international computer networks. The nature and type of information currently available in electronic form in academic settings are described--e.g., curriculum descriptions, course syllabi, reading lists, texts of speeches, manuscripts for review and comment, and entire journals--and the possibility of the federal government's making available much of its information in electronic form only is noted. The significance of restricting access to electronic information is also addressed, including the impact on students who cannot afford to buy their own computers and the difficulties faced by faculty researchers. The paper concludes by addressing what can be done to alleviate some of the ethical problems involved in limited access to electronic information, and by advocating solutions coordinated at the local, state, and national levels. (13 references)

Ayers, W., & Schubert, W. (1992). Do the right thing: Ethical issues and problems in the conduct of qualitative research in the classroom. Teaching and Learning, 6, 19-24.

Describes briefly four qualitative research projects and examines four sets of questions which illustrate ethical dilemmas embedded in qualitative research of the type described: the conduct of qualitative inquiry in the classroom, project implementation, the effect of the researcher's presence in the field, and understanding questions of pedagogy and power.

Bain, L. L., et al. (1993). Ethical issues in clinical settings. Quest, 45, 69-119.

Four papers on ethical issues in physical education clinical settings are presented: (1) "Ethical Issues in Teaching" (L. Bain); (2) "Ethics in Professional Advising and Academic Counseling of Graduate Students" (G. Roberts); (3) "Ethical Issues in Clinical Services" (R. Singer); and (4) a reaction to the three previous papers by Bonnie Berger.

Barr, M. J. (1987). Individual and institutional integrity. NASPA Journal, 24, 2-5.

Discusses integrity and institutional conscience in treating individuals, policy decisions, and daily functioning of institutions of higher education. Recommends "Applied Ethics in Student Services" (Canon & Brown, 1985), which focuses on respecting autonomy, doing no harm, benefiting others, being just, and being faithful. Reports preambles to statements of ethical standards of professional associations in counseling and student services.

Barr, M. J., & et al. (1990). New futures for student affairs:ilding a vision for professional leadership and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ideas are presented regarding the future of the student affairs profession. Part 1 assesses the foundation of the profession. Its chapters identify challenges for the future that are present in current practice, review ethical principles undergirding the profession, examine the assumptions and beliefs that guide student affairs, and highlight student development theory and emerging theoretical perspectives that will be useful in dealing with future challenges. Part 2 identifies the major forces for change and the implications these have for student affairs. Its chapters analyze demographic trends influencing higher education, explore relevant social issues, examine the changing nature of the legal and regulatory environment of higher education, assess the impact of the technological revolution, and identify new and developing career paths for student affairs professionals. Part 3 outlines an action agenda for planning for the future. It discusses new organizational roles and approaches for student affairs; suggests ways to improve skills in managing change; provides an agenda for staff development, professional preparation, and working conditions that must be met to face future challenges; discusses the importance of strengthening ties and developing collaborative efforts with academic affairs; and considers ways student affairs professionals can improve their ability to meet future challenges through research, evaluation, and outcomes assessment.

Baumgarten, E. (1982). Ethics in the academic profession. ASocratic view. Journal of Higher Education, 53, 282-95.

University teachers have a social responsibility to help other citizens, both inside and outside the classroom, formulate reasoned principles for themselves; for a faculty member to be an advocate for particular substantive positions is inconsistent with this responsibility. A checklist for precision in essay writing is appended.

Beyer, L. E. (1991). Schooling, moral commitment, and the preparation of teachers. Journal of Teacher Education, 42, 205-15.

Addresses causes and consequences for teacher educators of ignoring development of students' moral imagination and sense of efficacy. Critically reflective teacher education must help students understand and overcome social and educational dynamics. The article discusses Knox College's teacher preparation program, describing its emphasis on teaching and schooling as moral endeavors.

Bird, S. J. (1995). Setting ethical standards in science: The role of science professionals. AWIS Magazine, 24, 14-15.

Addresses the mechanisms by which information on professional standards and ethical values is transferred between faculty and junior colleagues. Discusses problems in this area and efforts to address the problems.

Bivens, T. H. (1991). A theory-based approach to public relations ethics. Journalism Educator . 45, 39-44.

Discusses the three areas that need to be addressed when considering the most beneficial context for teaching public relations ethics: core concepts and theories; relevant ethical theories; and the context in which the theory-based approach should be taught.

Bivins, T. H. (1992). A systems model for ethical decision making in public relations. Public Relations Review, 18, 365-83.

Advocates using systems theory and systems models for ethical decision making in public relations. Demonstrates how to apply systems theory (with its ability to delineate a complex process and wed it to a model of organizational decision making) to analyzing the ethical dimensions inherent in the public relations process.

Blucker, J. A., & Pell, S. W. J. (1986). Legal and ethical issues. Essential for professional preparation curricula. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 57, 19-22, & 28.

The largest percentage of lawsuits in any school-related activity are those involving physical education and/or coaching. This article suggests content for a course in the professional preparation of physical education teachers and coaches covering legal and ethical issues of physical education.

Boatman, S. A. (1990). Professional ethics: Doing "what is right"in the campus activities field. Campus Activities Programming, 22, 54-62.

In 1986 the National Association for Campus Activities Board of Directors adopted a statement of behavior expected of campus activities professionals. Three categories of expectations are outlined: those dealing with student development and relationships, those dealing with management, supervision, and professional development, and those dealing with research and publications.

Bottery, M. D. (1988). Educational management: An ethical critique. Oxford Review of Education, 14, 341-351.

The article argues that much of the current management literature in education is fundamentally flawed and ethically unpalatable because its current stress upon effectiveness omits attention to the intrinsic worth of education. It attacks, as ethically unacceptable, current suggestions that educational practitioners and recipients are to be viewed in an essentially manipulative manner.

Braxton, J. M. (1991). The influence of graduate department quality on the sanctioning of scientific misconduct. Journal of Higher Education, 62, 87-108.

A survey of 138 chemistry, physics, psychology, and sociology department heads investigated the relationship between the administrator's graduate school department quality and the formality of sanctioning of colleagues for violating each of the four norms of science. The results and implications for professional socialization within disciplines are discussed.

Brock, C. S. (1991). Ethical development through studentactivities programming. Campus Activities Programming, 24, 54-59.

Student activities programming, viewed as essential to the college experience, is defended by outlining some of the values and growth opportunities it provides for students. Several specific programming strategies useful as catalysts in values development are described, including values clarification exercises, multicultural programming, and practical skill development.

Broglio, L. (1992). Economics of ethics in the business of education. ACA Bulletin, 80, 23-27.

 

Raises numerous questions concerning ethical dilemmas faced by theater educators from the point of view of higher education as big business. Presents four categories of questions: philosophy, pedagogy, production, and administration.

Brubacher, J. S. (1982). On the philosophy of higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The book deals with the following topics: higher learning, academic autonomy, academic freedom, higher education, general and specialized education, pedagogy of higher education, ethics of scholarship, and the university as a church. In the chapter "ethics of scholarships," such topics as obligation to one's discipline, ethical tangents to academic freedom, financial considerations, sanctions, and student honor codes are discussed.

Budig, J. E. (1992). Handling the unethical request. In Ethics and Standards in Institutional Research (pp 75-79). New Directions for Institutional Research, no. 73. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Strategies for the college institutional researcher to use in responding to an unethical request for information or research are outlined, including techniques for developing an effective personal administrative style, basic principles of strategic communication, and the ultimate option of resignation.

Burwell, R., et al. (1992). Values assessment at three consortium colleges: A longitudinal followup study. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 345 635)

A longitudinal study investigated developmental changes in moral and ethical decision-making among college students at three Christian, evangelical, liberal arts colleges. The three colleges had an "ethics across the curriculum" emphasis in place during the period of the study. The study began in 1987 with 99 freshmen from a total incoming class of 1400, of whom 37 percent were male and 63 percent were female. A follow-up study was done in 1991 with the 75 students still enrolled in school. The study used both qualitative and quantitative instruments that included measurement of demographic characteristics, survey of major social issues, a defining issues test, a value survey, a learning context questionnaire, a test of religious problem solving styles, and an interview. Findings indicated that subjects were generally similar to one another and to the college population as a whole and that the students made significant advances in moral reasoning, openness and tolerance, and religious identity. Elements needed to induce more students to take advantage of growth opportunities during their college years are discussed. Included are appendixes containing 22 tables and 56 references.

Byrnes, D. A., & Kiger, G. (1988, October). Ethical and pedagogical issues in the use of simulation activities in the classroom: Evaluating the "Blue Eyes-Brown Eyes" prejudice simulation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Northern Rocky Mountain Educational Research Association, Jackson, WY. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 300 491)

 

The effectiveness of a well-known prejudice-reduction simulation activity, "Blue Eyes-Brown Eyes," was assessed as a tool for changing the attitudes of nonblack teacher education students toward blacks. The subjects were 164 students enrolled in eight sections of an introductory elementary education course at a state university. Three sections were selected to be administered the simulation; five sections served as a control group. All students were administered two racial attitude measures as pre- and post-tests. After participating in the simulation, students described their feelings about the experience both in writing and in an hour-long debriefing session. Outcomes include the following: (1) all subjects reported that the experience was meaningful; (2) statistical analysis of pre- and post-test results showed moderate prejudice reduction; and (3) all participants reported stress from the simulation. An attempt to measure long-term behavior change, using a mail solicitation one year later, was inconclusive. Ethical considerations are explored connected with subjecting simulation participants to short-run emotional discomfort in order to achieve greater compassion for others. Three tables of statistical data and a seven-page list of references are included.

Cahn, S. (1986). Saints and scamps--Ethics in academia. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.

Malpractice is a term applicable to members of any profession who fail to exercise appropriate care in carrying out their duties. But what exactly are the duties of professors, and what are the appropriate standards for care? The author addresses these questions, and covers the topics of professional life, teaching, scholarship and service, personnel decision, and graduate education.

Callahan, D. (1982). Should there be an academic code of ethics? Journal of Higher Education, 53, 335-44.

The problem of academic ethics is not in flagrant faculty misbehavior. More difficult moral dilemmas are posed by the university's complexity, the increase in the range of ethical dilemmas facing faculty, and the changing public expectations of the university. A code of ethics would be insufficient to deal with these problems.

Camenisch, P. F. (1986). Goals of applied ethics courses. Journal of Higher Education, 57, 493-509.

 

The goals of applied ethics courses are examined in relation to the stimuli for initiating such courses, the settings in which they are offered, and the nature of moral agency and development. A typology of possible goals is offered, and current testing methods are discussed.

Canon, H. J., & Brown, R. D. (1985). Applied ethics in student services. New Direction for Student Services, no. 30. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The first two chapters in this sourcebook present an overview of the range of ethical problems that can arise in the daily practice of student services and a discussion of principles that can help in making ethical decisions in student affairs. The third chapter presents a model for defining ethical behavior, and the fourth chapter examines several ethical codes of student services professional organizations for biases and limitations. The last two chapters consider the importance of developing a community of support for ethical ideals and examine some commonly held beliefs about ethics and their relevance. An appendix presents the ethical codes of the American College Personnel Association and the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Carr, D. L. (1988, October). Ethics across the curriculum. Paperpresented at the National Conference on Coherence in the Liberal Arts Curriculum, Denton, TX. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 303 113)

One attempt to integrate the aims of liberal and professional education at a public university, St. Cloud State University (St. Cloud, Minnesota), is described. The question of whether professional education precludes a coherent liberal arts curriculum is raised. At St. Cloud, relationships between the liberal arts and professional programs are primarily in the form of discrete requirements for service courses. In 1986, it received funding to implement a program in professional ethics organized around the theme of responsibility in professional life. The St. Cloud program is described, with emphasis on multidisciplinary ethics across-the- curriculum. The major elements include the development of case studies and an all-university seminar in professional ethics. The impact on faculty, students, and curriculum has been dramatic. One of the reasons it has been so successful is because it was built from the ground up. Lessons to be learned from St. Cloud include that integration must be a focus, it must be funded, and it must fit the existing reward system.

CAS standards and guidelines for student services/development programs. (1986). Council for the Advancement of Standards for Student Services/Development Programs. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 303 757)

Document contains standards and guidelines for postsecondary education student services and student development programs. The stated expectations are that all institutions with minimally acceptable student services, student development programs, or professional preparation programs must be able to satisfy the Council for the Advancement of Standards for Student Services/Development Programs (CAS's) requirements; and that guidelines should be viewed as examples and suggestions that are consistent with CAS's definition of appropriate, effective professional practice or professional preparation. These topics are addressed: (1) academic advising; (2) career planning and placement; (3) college unions; (4) commuter student programs and services; (5) counseling services; (6) disabled student services; (7) fraternity and sorority advising; (8) housing and residential life programs; (9) learning assistance programs; (10) minority student programs and services; (11) recreational sports; (12) religious programs; (13) research and evaluation; (14) student activities; (15) student orientation programs; and (16) judicial programs and services. In the discussion of each of the 16 topics, the categories of mission, program, organization and administration, human resources, funding, facilities, campus and community relations, ethics, and evaluation are included. Preparation standards and guidelines at the master's degree level for student services/development professionals in postsecondary education are also included.

Chu, L., & Duling, J. (1987, April). When will a university counselor reveal confidential information? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 282 156)

A recent study identified confidentiality as the most frequently encountered dilemma for college counselors. A study was conducted to examine whether there was a consensus among directors of college and university counseling centers regarding confidentiality. Directors (N=160) completed questionnaires concerning counseling center background and size, college characteristics, counseling center guidelines and limits on confidentiality, and whether clients were informed of limits. Professional data on directors were also obtained. Subjects read three hypothetical vignettes depicting legal and ethical dilemmas likely to be found in college and university counseling centers. Dilemmas concerned clients and computer crimes, client manufacturing of illegal drugs, and a client with a suicidal roommate. For each vignette, subjects responded to whether or not they would keep the confidentiality. Responses to vignettes revealed that most directors were reluctant to break confidentiality. This reluctance did not correlate with the center's policies on confidentiality, the center's demographics, counseling center size, nor with directors' professional variables. Although most directors reported that their counseling centers had policies about confidentiality, the results suggest that centers need more specific guidelines concerning confidentiality, and that counselors and student clients need to be better informed about confidentiality limits.

Chu, L., & Duling, J. (1987). Confidentiality and the university counseling center. NASPA Journal, 24, 50-56.

Surveyed 160 directors of college and university counseling centers to determine whether there was a consensus regarding confidentiality in terms of personal responsibilities and policies within their center. Results revealed a need for campus counseling centers to look at their policies regarding confidentiality and to keep current with legal implications of the limits of confidential communication.

Ciervo, A. V. (1987). Truth or consequences. Currents, 13, 20-24.

Even colleges and universities--institutions dedicated to the search for truth--sometimes give out false information when it is to their advantage. However, most public relations professionals agree that it's bad practice to do anything to undermine integrity and credibility. Guidelines for public relations professionals are discussed.

Cole, S. A. (1991). Professional ethics and the role of the academic officer. CUPA Journal, 42, 37-41.

When academic officers must settle conflicts, knowledge of the law is insufficient. Advice of counsel and formulations of law cannot substitute for their frequent and confident articulation and interpretation of well-understood professional values, because they are responsible for assuring the integrity and quality of educational programs.

Coleman, R. J., & Toenjes, R. H. (1989). Integrating liberal learning into technical education. Thought and Action, 5, 49-54.

The University of North Carolina-Charlotte developed a team-taught course that integrates social and ethical considerations into the engineering context. Professors of engineering, humanities, and social sciences join with community-based professionals to demonstrate the "usefulness" of the humanities and social sciences for solving technical problems.

Commager, H. S. (1985). Science, nationalism, and the academy. Academe, 71, 8-13.

The question of how the academy can continue and prosper from the beneficent association with government without permitting government to debase science and learning for nationalist purposes is discussed in a speech at the annual meeting of the American Association of University Professors. Science and nationialism are seen as locked in mortal combat.

Cooper, D. W. (1988, March). Unethical scholarship today: A preliminary typology. Paper presented at the Humanities, Science and Technology Conference, Big Rapids, MI. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 304 060)

Today many signs point to an uneasy concern among scholars regarding the ethics of their peers. All too frequently the press reports cases of ethical breaches in many fields of scholarship. Over the years a few people have continued to note and study patterns of deviant and unethical behavior in scholarship. But in spite of the need to discriminate between the various cases of misconduct, there are still those who consider all such misconduct as "fraud." Approximately 30 examples of clearly unethical scholarship, ranging from minor to seriously culpable, are illustrated and examined. They include a variety of cases of irresponsibility, negligence, and fraud, with some practices, such as repetitive publishing and honorary authorship, deserving special mention. A number of causes, including publication inflation and careerism, appear to encourage these breaches with varying consequences. Contains 131 reference notes.

Corey, G. (1988). Issues and ethics in the helping profession Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

This book is meant to help the reader learn to deal with the professional and ethical issues that most affect the actual practice of counseling and related helping profession throughout the practitioner's career. Some of the questions that the author attempts to answer are: what are the rights and responsibilities of both the client and the helper? how can professionals determine their levels of competence? How can they provide quality services for culturally diverse populations, and what are some major ethical issues facing practitioners in community agencies and in private practice?

Corson, D. (1985). Quality of judgment and deciding rightness: Ethics and educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 23, 122-30.

Challenges certain theoretical assumptions underlying educational administration. Demands critical thinking about ethical aspects, particularly the relationship between "quality of judgement" and "deciding rightness." Proposes an ethics program for school administrators incorporating values reflected in schools as a social institution. (42 references)

Cosgrove, T. J. (1987). Understanding how college students think.Campus Activities Programming, 20, 56-60.

With a knowledge of students' thinking processes, activities advisers and leaders can design environments for maximum learning and development. An interpretation of Perry's model of intellectual and ethical development is provided.

Council for the advancement of standards for student services/development programs. Standards and Guidelines. (1990). NACADA Journal, 10, 52-60.

A consortium of 20 organizations has designed standards and guidelines for improving the quality of student services and the training of professionals involved in student services and development programs. They address a variety of issues including mission, program design, leadership and management, administration, funding, facilities, responsibility, ethics, and evaluation.

Cufaude, J. (1991). The rhetoric and reality of professional ethics. Campus Activities Programming, 24, 44-47, & 50-51.

In the complex environment of campus activities planning and higher education, individual values do occasionally affect the ability of campus activities professionals to apply explicit professional ethics. These professionals must accentuate the understanding and application of professional values and minimize other values that inhibit them from doing so.

Culbertson, H. M. (1983). How public relations textbooks handlehonesty and lying. Public Relations Review, 9, 65-73.

Analyzed six recent public relations textbooks for content on honesty. Concluded from this analysis that public relations students do not obtain an in-depth view of issues relating to honesty in communication.

Culliton, B. J. (1982). AAMC speaks on coping with fraud. Science, 217, 226-28.

In wake of a number of highly publicized incidents of research fraud at some of the nation's most prestigious medical schools, the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) has developed guidelines for coping with dishonesty in science. Highlights of these guidelines are reviewed.

Cuninggim, M. (1989). SMU's institutional and athletic reform. AGB Reports, 31, 14-18.

At Southern Methodist University, the athletic problems were merely the tip of the iceberg. The real scandal was the way the university was organized and run. Some implications for American higher education in general are presented.

Dalton, J. C., Barnett, D. C., & Healy, M. A. (1982). Ethical issues and values in student development: A survey of NASPA chief personnel officers. NASPA Journal, 20, 14-21.

The purpose of this study is to identify the major ethical issues and values which concern student personnel leaders and the educational approaches they employ in promoting value development in students. This article focuses on the results of the ratings of ethical issues, values, and persons responsible for values educated.

Davis, N., (1986, April). Developing professionalism in a diverse profession. Proceedings, Sixty- Sixth Annual Conference, Association of College Unions-International, Houston, Tx.

Chapter one of these proceedings on developing professionalism in college union staff members includes papers on professional ethics, performance under pressure, women in operations, supervision of homosexual employees, and student-staff work performance evaluations. Chapter two includes articles on constructing a philosophy for college unions, legal issues, conflict resolution, financial management, marketing, conference planning, food service, and union renovation projects. Chapter three focuses on developing student leadership, and Chapter four deals with new student orientation. Chapter five concerns the business of the Associate of College Unions-International.

Davis, S. F. & Ludvigson, H. W. (1995). Additional data on academic dishonesty and a proposal for remediation. Teaching of Psychology, 22, 119-21.

Maintains that cheating is a major concern on college campuses. Presents data from 2,153 upper-division undergraduate students on the frequency of cheating, reasons for cheating, and influence of penalties on cheating. Offers a model that develops an internalized code of ethics to counteract academic dishonesty.

Dill, D. D. (1982). The structure of the academic profession: Toward a definition of ethical issues. Journal of Higher Education, 53, 255-67.

Limitations in defining the academic profession are examined, and values potentially in conflict with the profession are identified. The role of the individual faculty member in understanding and dealing with these conflicts is explored. The focus is on ethical conflicts in teaching and service rather than research.

Dill, D. D. (Ed.), (1982). Ethics and the academic profession [Special issue]. Journal of Higher Education, 53, 243-357.

This special issue contains nine articles by nine authors on ethics and the academic profession, including an introduction, a definition of ethical issues, four commentaries on the ethical issues in teaching, topics to be included in a code of ethics, arguments against having a code of ethics, and an epilogue on teaching and ethics.

Donovan, M. S. (1989). The "high-risk" student: An ethical hallenge for faculty. Journal of Professional Nursing, 5, 120.

High-risk students, a new segment of the baccalaureate nursing student population, are being admitted in increasing numbers. Faculty must learn to identify this group, and institutions must search for strategies to decrease the attrition rate within it.

Doromal, Q. S., & Creamer, D. G. (1988). An evaluation of the ethical judgement scale. Journal of College Student Development, 29, 151-158.

This article investigated certain measurement properties of the Ethical Judgement Scale. Results revealed findings of questionable validity and unacceptably low reliability for the instrument even though three different scoring methods were used in the analysis.

Dressel, P. L., & Mayhew, L. B. (1974). Higher education as a field of study. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chapter one of this book is a review of the study of higher education, and its literature. Chapter two presents a complete picture and analysis of programs on higher education and describes one representative higher education program in detail. Chapter three discusses the various components of current programs. Chapter four highlights the complexities, problems, and issues of higher education as a field of study as well as those of the programs themselves. Chapter five presents the authors' recommendations for how programs might be altered to better serve the needs of degree candidates and of higher education in general. The final chapter six presents a typology and a series of observations and principles which the authors believe will be useful to those who wish either to review and revise existing programs or possible to develop new ones.

Duffy, B. K. (1987). Fundamentalism, relativism, and commitment [Special Issue: Censorship in communication education]. Communication Education, 36, 403-09.

Responds to Barry Brummett's criticism of a previous article by the author suggesting techniques for dealing with fundamentalist Christian students in speech classes. Considers the merits of Brummett's counter proposal and suggests that public speaking courses should not aim to convert absolutist students to relativism but teach them to adapt their arguments.

Elliott, D., Ed. (1995). The Ethics of asking: Dilemmas in hgher education fund raising. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 384 290)

This volume provides college and university development officers and administrators practical help with recognizing difficult ethical situations and discerning the correct ethical response. It can also serve as a guide for donors who wonder what's reasonable for them to expect from fund raisers. Section 1 contains chapters on the social and moral foundations for ethical discernment. Section 2 contains chapters on specific areas of concern. After, "Introduction: The Ethical Landscape" by Eric B. Wentworth, the chapter titles and authors are: "Law and Regulation" (Bruce R. Hopkins and Deni Elliott); "The Moral Context of Fund Raising" (Deni Elliott and Bernard Gert); "The Language of Fund Raising" (Allen Buchanan); "Fund Raising as a Profession" (James A. Donahue); "Handling Prospect Research" (Mary Lou Siebert, Deni Elliott, and Marilyn Batt Dunn); "Fund Raising and Friend Raising: Institution-Donor Relationships" (Judith M. Gooch); "Gifts and Donors' Expectations" (Holly Smith and Marilyn Batt Dunn); "Planned Giving" (Frank A. Logan); "Corporations and Foundations" (Judith M. Gooch); "Comprehensive Fund-Raising Campaigns" (Richard F. Seaman and Eric B. Wentworth); and "Employment" (Richard F. Seaman). Appendixes contain sample codes of ethics and statements of principles of the following organizations: the CANARAS group, the Council for the Advancement and Support of Education, the New England Development Researchers Association, the National Committee on Planning Giving, the American Prospect Research Association, the National Society of Fund Raising Executives, and the Council on Foundations. An index, notes, and list of contributors are included. (Contains over 200 references.)

Enhancing academic advising skills: A resource manual for staff development. (1981). Milwaukee: Wisconsin University, Counseling and Advising Network. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 235 699)

A handbook for improving the skills of academic advisors, and specifically advisors at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee (UWM), is presented. Attention is directed to four main topics: philosophies, goals, policies and procedures of the university; job-specific knowledge of the school/division; ethical concerns; and advising skills and techniques. It is suggested that advisors should be provided with a manual containing specific information about academic requirements and procedures and careers related to the academic area. Ethical concerns, which are addressed in a UWM policies manual, are identified, including policies regarding student records, sexual harassment, and the advisor's anecdotal records. The following advising skills and techniques are briefly discussed: establishing rapport, nonverbal communication, active listening, types of questions that can be used, information giving, and problem solving and decision making. Advisor attitudes that affect advising are also addressed: cross cultural awareness, respect for individuals, and involvement as a person. Lastly, student assessment and the monitoring of progress in academic performance are discussed. A list of reference materials, many of which pertain to UWM, and a bibliography are included.

Ettinger, E. R. (1991). Role modeling for clinical educators. Journal of Optometric Education, 16, 60-62.

To become better role models, higher educators in institutions of clinical education should be conscious of the behaviors they demonstrate and the broad range of activities and attitudes that students observe and emulate, including clinical competence, professional demeanor, doctor-patient interactions, ethical values, and social consciousness.

Evers, C. W. (1985). Hodgkinson on ethics and the philosophy of administration. Educational Administration Quarterly, 21, 27-50.

Offers a systematic critical response to the values-oriented, nonpositivist conception of administration and philosophy of administration recently advanced by Christopher Hodgkinson. Argues that Hodgkinson's theory is much closer to the positivism espoused by H. A. Simon. An alternative, nonpositivist basis for values in administrative theory is proposed.

Ewbank, H. L. (1986, November). Case studies of the AIA movement.Paper presented at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 286 213)

At least 17 university faculty members have been the direct objects of unfavorable public commentary by the conservative organization Accuracy in Academia, Inc (AIA). Two case studies that have received much attention involve two political science professors: Dr. Terry Anderson of Texas A & M University, and Dr. Mark Reader of Arizona State University. Dr. Anderson was targeted by AIA reportedly for stating in class that he did not believe in the institution of marriage, that he was an atheist and that he held no patriotic ties with Texas A & M, the flag, or America. Dr. Anderson filed a defamation and libel suit against the organization because the story could affect employability were he to seek another position. Dr. Reader was accused by AIA of using his "Political Ideologies" course as a forum for protesting nuclear armament. Dr. Reader did not respond with a law suit, but rather wrote letters to the American Political Science Association explaining his position, and sought a university policy that would prohibit unregistered individuals ("classroom spies") from attending classes for the purpose of gathering information to be used against the university or individual professors. The actions of AIA have reinforced the beliefs of many in the liberal arts who have denied intellectual standing to much of modern neoconservatism on the grounds that it stifles rather than nurtures intellectual and academic freedom. (Two pages of sources are included.)

Fein, R. (1988). Tough choices: Ethical dilemmas in our profession. Journal of Career Planning and Employment, 69, 44-49.

In this first of a two-part series, college placement directors reveal how they would handle issues of conscience on the job by responding to hypothetical dilemmas. Issues examined include conflict between students, institutional interest, confidentiality, strength of conviction, and dishonorable conduct.

Fein, R. (1989). Tough choices: Ethical dilemmas in our rofession (Part Two). Journal of Career Planning and Employment, 49, 34-38.

Presents second part of two-part report on ethics in the college placement profession. Reports responses of 87 corporate college relations professionals (recruiters) to brief scenarios describing several situations involving ethics. Considers issues of confidentiality, favoritism, penalties recruiters would be willing to risk by defying a superior, and honesty.

Fein, R. (1992). Where do we now stand in the ethical thicket? Journal of Career Planning and Employment, 52, 62-66.

Sent set of seven scenarios depicting ethical dilemmas to all members of Eastern College Personnel Officers. Findings from 130 respondents revealed a gap between what majority of practitioners believe is ethical and what a plain reading of the College Placement Council's "Principles from Professional Conduct" guidelines seems to instruct.

Feudtner, Chris, et al. (1994). Do clinical clerks sufferethical erosion? Students' perceptions of their ethical environment and personal development. Academic Medicine, 69, 670-79.

A survey of 665 fourth-year medical students in 6 schools investigated whether students had encountered ethically problematic situations, their attitudes about them, and their perceptions of their personal ethical development. Results suggest that ethical dilemmas are commonly encountered and often detrimental, warranting attention of physicians, educators, and ethicists.

Fleischauer, J. F. (1984). Back to the cave: Social rsponsibility n liberal arts education. Liberal Education, 70, 113-19.

One of the oldest problems of western education, the appropriateness of instruction in the ethics of knowledge, is related to the principle of social virtue. Liberal arts colleges are beginning to reaffirm strongly their commitment to social responsibility in both mission statements and curriculum revision.

Flinders, N. J. (1992, October). Ethics in education: Should we ocus on talent or genius? Address presented at the Utah Speech Arts Association, Salt Lake City, UT. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 353 607)

This address begins by reviewing the long heritage in Utah (132 years) of teachers gathering together for the purpose of improving their service to students. But there is danger of the system hardening and becoming more important than the services it was created to deliver, and it is within the frame of these historical choices that the address then suggests that what in academia is now called "ethics in education" should be called "morality in education." The address argues that the issue of morality in education is the same issue that poses the central problem in intellectual history: Do individuals have both a spiritual and physical dimension or just a physical dimension? The address then considers a primary response to the problem, citing the historians' explanation for the shift from traditional beliefs to the modern perspective known as the "secularization hypothesis," an explanation popularized by theorists such as Marx, Comte, Dewey, Freud, and others. Two personal experiences which provide a "bookends" view of rhetoric are cited--that of winning a high school debate tournament, and, much later, that of serving as the president of the Far Western Philosophy of Education Society, and between these two experiences came the realization that talent, however useful, is not a quality foundation for human life. Instead, it is argued, morality is rooted in genius (in the ancient sense of an attendant spirit allotted to every person at birth to preside over destiny in life), not in talent. The address concludes that morality in education, therefore, depends upon the educator having the willingness and courage to acknowledge the existence of a spiritual domain.

Fraedrich, J. P., & Guerts, M. D. (1990). Ethical awareness for he classroom: A framework. Journal of Education for Business, 66, 88-93.

Prescribes a cognitive framework for sensitizing students in ethical decision making. Reviews the current status of ethics in business education, presents methods of teaching ethics, discusses problems encountered in teaching ethics, and provides a teaching framework enhancing effectiveness in the ethics area.

Framework for institutional policies and procedures to deal with misconduct in research. (1989). Academic Medicine, 64, 559-66.

The Association of American Medical Colleges' statement defines misconduct in research, discusses its prevention, and outlines suggested processes and policy for handling allegations of misconduct, appeal and final review, and disciplinary action.

Franklin, B. S. (1993). Diversity and democracy in America hgher education. Thresholds in Education, 19, 28-30.

A social sciences professor at a northwest Georgia college describes her efforts to institute democratic practices in her classroom of mostly older women students. Faculty is advised to listen carefully to students, read what they write, ask open-ended questions and listen to multiple responses, trust students' world-knowledge, make students' work part of text, and share own life and work.

Frew, J. E., (1982). The need for guidelines to assist counselors n defining the nature of the counseling relationship in the college setting. Journal of College Student Personnel, 23, 144-146.

College counselors may find that some individuals are both clients and students in their courses. They may be confronted by their clients at campus events or in commonly used campus areas, such as the cafeteria. Finally, they may be inhibited for ethical reasons from pursuing any personal relationships on campus if all university employees as well as all students are potential clients. Such ethical conflicts occur because a college counselor is not just a mental health professional but a recognized member of a small community. Extra-session contacts with clients should be viewed as added opportunities for therapeutic goals. However, models and standards for college counselors do not exist at the present time and need to be created.

Friedman, B. (1982). The career counselor as educator. Journal of College Placement, 43, 55-57.

Presents the premises underlying college career counseling and placement services. Discusses whether counselors are unintentionally influencing students' career choices through language, programming, counseling, career resource materials, campus and public media, and campus recruitment. Describes a workshop that helps students explore values.

Gallagher, V. (1992). Ethical considerations in college admission practices: A proposal for dialogic involvement. Journal of College Admission, 8-12.

Notes that current surge in promotional activities has called into question the social responsibility of colleges and universities. Focuses specifically on admission and promotional practices. Begins by reviewing the current practice, then goes on to discuss self-regulation, counseling, and the role of marketing in the college admission process.

Garni, K. F., et al. (1992). Accreditation guidelines for uiversity and college counseling services. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61, 116-21.

Presents guidelines reflecting the numerous changes undergone by counseling services in the past decade. Outlines the present roles and functions of counseling services. Articulates current professional standards for the operation of university counseling services.

Gibbs, A. (1991). Drug testing and college athletes: A dilemma for institutional administration. CUPA Journal, 42, 27-32.

A discussion of mandatory drug testing for college athletes reviews the National Collegiate Athletic Association's policy, arguments for and against such testing, the results of relevant court litigation, and the legal ramifications for college administration. The testing of employees in both public and private sectors is also briefly addressed.

Goldstein, M. B. (1984). Law and ethics in cooperative education [Special thematic issue--Policy issues: Apathy or action?]. Journal of Cooperative Education, 20, 39-48.

Recognizes that cooperative education encompasses two different and distinct areas of law: the law of higher education and the law of the work place. Cooperative education crosses these areas; consideration of its legal and ethical imperatives must include contradictions as well as overlap.

Goodman, A. (1992). The good of ethics--and how to get there. Journal of Career Planning and Employment, 52, 54-59.

Questions whether ethical behavior within field of career services and employment can be defined and, if defined, whether professionals can follow its principles in their practices. Seeks to clarify concept of ethics and to distinguish ethical from legal. Includes figures that illustrate the relationship of principles to ethical standards, sources of job pressures, and needs that produce unethical behaviors.

Harrison, G. A. (1993). The Ethics of a democratically-based lassroom. Thresholds in Education, 19, 19-26.

The elite model of education postulates that only a select few have the intellectual capacity, moral values, and personal commitment to make "good" decisions for society. A democratically based classroom, where students are respected for their intellectual abilities, personal integrity, and commitment to achievement, fosters successful learning. Tips for encouraging student independence and self-control are provided.

Harrison, S. L. (1989, October). Communication curricula and thics. Paper presented at the Florida Communication Association Conference, Orlando, FL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 352 688)

A study examined the role of ethics in advertising and public relations courses. A questionnaire was sent to 183 colleges and universities that offer major fields of studies i, advertising or public relations, and 134 institutions responded for a return rate of 73%. Results indicated that: (1) nearly all (97%) of the respondents affirm that the study of ethics is either "very important" or "important" for public relations and advertising students; (2) 78% report such studies are "extremely important"; (3) 90% rank ethics as an "increasingly important issue" for professional practitioners, and 74% "strongly" agree that the issue of ethics is increasingly important; (4) 93% assert that public relations or advertising sequences include the study of ethics, and 82% require students to complete courses with at least some ethics content; but (5) only 25% of the institutions offered courses devoted exclusively to ethics; and (6) only 26% feel that educational institutions should have the major responsibility for inculcating ethics. Findings suggest that there is a need for teachers who are familiar with the singular moral questions that pertain to advertising and public relations practices in the marketplace, and a separate course in ethics should be required as part of the core curriculum. (One table of data and 13 footnotes are included.)

Harrison, S. L. (1989, November). Pedagogical ethics: A review of he literature for public relations and advertising. Paper presented at the 75th Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 352 690)

Ethics is of increasing concern to United States colleges and universities, according to a survey of 183 institutions on this issue focusing on two areas--public relations and advertising. A 75% return from 134 institutions disclosed that some 25% offer an ethics course but less than half require one. Overwhelmingly (93%), most respondents asserted that ethics are included in all courses. A thorough review of all texts cited as most used, however, disclosed slight or cursory inclusion of ethics; in advertising almost nil, with public relations somewhat better. In ethics courses themselves, the emphasis is toward journalism. Ethics, largely neglected or served with lip-service pieties, requires more attention in public relations and in advertising. (Sixty-nine footnotes are included.)

Harrison, S. L. (1989, August). Teaching public relations: The ole of ethics. Paper presented at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 310 428)

Ethics is an area of increasing concern in U.S. colleges and universities. A recent survey of 183 institutions with major teaching focus on public relations (with 134 returns, for a 73% return rate), indicated that only one in four institutions offers a specific ethics course, and less than half of this group require it. Nevertheless, an overwhelming 93% of the respondents asserted that ethics is included in all courses. A thorough review of all texts cited as most used, however, disclosed slight or cursory inclusion of ethics in texts at all levels. If ethics is an integral part of the coursework, a major burden of that inclusion rests with instructors for significant discussion, lacking textual examples. Most of the ethics courses themselves focus on journalism, not public relations. Ethics, largely neglected, or served with lip-service pieties, requires increasing attention in the public relations sequence.

Harvancik, M. J. (1987). Ethical issues/responsibilities involved n the supervision and training of counselors. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Association for Counseling and Development (New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 281 124)

This paper presents an elaboration of the ethical standards for the American Association for Counseling and Development found under Section H: Preparation Standards, which gives an outline of the issues and responsibilities of particular concern to individuals supervising counselors-in-training. Standards are considered in the context of a proposed counselor education program. Specific elements of the program pertinent to supervision are discussed, including didactic coursework and theoretical background, experiential learning, ethical considerations, hands-on counseling issues/experiences, and supervision. Experiential learning activities presented include role modeling and role playing, self-disclosure, and personal therapy. Ethical considerations examined include confidentiality, violent clients and duty to warn, self-destructive and suicidal clients, and vicarious liability. An outline of the various components believed to be integral in the enhancement of counselor effectiveness is provided. It is noted that, in addition to the specific issues mentioned, supervisors have several functions that span all facets of training and that, regarding counselors-in-training, supervisors need to monitor the welfare of clients, facilitate growth of trainees and trainee transition from stage to stage, and serve an evaluation function.

Hayman, P. M., & Covert, J. A. (1986). Ethical dilemmas in college counseling centers. Journal of Counseling & Development, 64, 318-20.

Results of a survey of ethical dilemmas faced by college counselors are presented. Findings and implications are discussed as they relate to types and frequencies of ethical dilemmas encountered and how they are resolved. A typical ethical dilemma is described.

Hazler, R. J. & Carney, J. (1993). Student-Faculty interactions: an underemphasized dimension of counselor education. Counselor Education and Supervision, 33, 80-88.

Explores accreditation standards, ethical codes, and literature on counselor educator and student interactions. Looks at ethical guidelines on student-faculty relationships and student satisfaction with faculty relationships. Suggests potential research issues and considers the impact of this information on programs.

Hoover, D. R. (1991). Guidelines for conducting college ersistence/education research. Journal of the Freshman Year Experience, 3, 71-84.

Suggested research procedures for higher education practitioners with little research background, emphasizing college persistence and education studies, include seeking advice from qualified colleagues and statisticians, especially in the planning stages. Focal areas include scientific interest, practical significance, research design, previous research, existing data, available resources, ethical issues, and report writing.

Hotelling, K. (1990). Process and change: 1989 American College Personnel Association Statement of Ethical Principals and Standards. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 9-10.

Discusses first revision of "Statement of Ethical and Professional Standards" (American College Personnel Association, 1981). Outlines process used by the organization's Ethics Revision Committee and changes made in the revision. Concludes that the revisions made have resulted in easily referenced document that provides direction for college personnel to use in examining the ethical implications of student affairs.

Howe, K. R. (1986, April). Ethics for teachers: A synopsis of needs, goals, teaching methods, and curricular arrangements. Paper presented at the 67th Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 275 650)

Interest in explicitly incorporating a consideration of ethical issues into teacher education is on the rise. A parallel development has been underway in other areas of professional education, especially medicine and nursing, over the past decade and a half. Borrowing from the field of applied and professional ethics generally, this paper addresses the four central issues of needs, goals, teaching methods, and curricular arrangements as they apply to ethics for teachers. Several anticipated misconceptions and sources of resistance are discussed, and suggestions are offered regarding the shape that ethics for teachers curricula should take.

Howland, P., & Palmer, R. (1992). Ethics and computer guidance:Uneasy partners? Journal of Career Planning and Employment, 52, 38-41, & 43-45.

Conducted two studies to survey counselors about ethical aspects of delivering career information by computer to students and to assess their attitudes about use of computer-assisted career guidance systems (CACGS). Results paint accurate picture of state of actual CACGS use and related ethical standards. Extensive bibliography is appended.

Huebner, L., & Banning, J. H. (1987). Ethics of intentional campus design. NASPA Journal, 25, 28-37.

Recognizing that efforts to intentionally design campus environments involve value choices and confront the practitioner with ethical dilemmas, this article raises critical issues about environmental management of college campuses, including issues of freedom and control, privacy, informed consent, competence, political poisoning, values, and participation.

Jaschik, S. (1992). Justice Department documents raise new questions about workings of college "overlap group." Chronicle of Higher Education, 38, 7-27.

Justice Department documents prepared for an antitrust lawsuit suggest that the way the eight Ivy League colleges and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have recruited students and awarded financial aid amounts to price fixing. The Overlap Group, 23 elite private colleges, met regularly to compare financial aid packages offered to common applicants.

Jensen, M. D. (1987, April). Ethics, grades, and grade inflation: Student evaluations as a factor in multi-sectioned courses. Paper presented at the Joint Meeting of the Central States Speech Association and the Southern Speech Communication Association, St. Louis, MO. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 281 259)

Grade inflation is a serious problem in multisectioned speech communication courses, and one of its principal causes is a desire for positive student evaluations and high enrollments on the part of professors and economically insecure departments (who need the funding generated by high enrollments). Positive student evaluations have been found to correlate with high grades, and students have been shown to expect that they can influence their final grades by rating their instructors highly. Research indicates that most departments realize this, and are also aware that professors often aim for positive evaluations in order to get tenure, yet they often fail to intervene to curb grade inflation. Fair grading, however, is a teacher's moral and ethical responsibility, and administrations must take steps to ensure that faculty members do not contribute to grade inflation. Administrators evaluating instructors of multisectioned courses should: (1) have the instructor prepare a statement of grading criteria; (2) send the grading patterns of all other multi-sectioned courses to each instructor; (3) compare an instructor's grading pattern with student evaluations during decisions on tenure, salary, and promotion; and (4) separate at least some of the grading from instruction, for example, by having separate lecturers and graders for large courses. These steps should lead to ethical grading procedures, and benefit both students and teachers in the end.

Johnstone, C. L. (1990). Academic freedom in the speech communication classroom: Toward an ethics for teaching. ACA Bulletin, 73, 63-70.

Argues that the requirement to nurture and sustain academic freedom in the classroom creates obligations for the teacher, and that these obligations form the ethical framework within which the educational enterprise is to be undertaken.

Jones, B. J. (1986). Understanding the significance of technologyin art education. Art Education, 39, 23-24, & 45-46.

This article argues that art educators must go beyond mere use of computer technology to assist instruction. They must also use their training in fine arts and humanities to influence the aesthetic and ethical directions of new technologies.

Journalism Education Association. (1997). JEA's code of ethics for advisers; and sites for additional ethics information. Communication: Journalism Education Today, 30, 16-17.

Lists general principles that media advisers should follow, the 12 points agreed upon as the Journalism Education Association's (JEA) Code of Ethics for Advisers, and a list of Web sites that deal with journalism ethics.

Jump, J. (1995). The Ethics of need-blind admission. Journal of College Admission, 147, 12-15.

Discusses the need for consensus about the ethics of need-blind admission by focusing on principles concerning the practice of college admissions. Argues that colleges should not abandon need-blind admissions but should, instead, remove expectations that colleges should meet the full needs of all the students they accept.

Kasprisin, L. (1987, February). Ethical questions for teachers: A case study approach. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 290 758)

This paper examines the appropriateness of the case study approach, commonly used in medical and law schools, for prospective and inservice teachers in schools of education. Developing courses in which case studies would be used to illustrate moral dilemmas would aid teachers in examining their ethical principles, weighing moral issues, and applying ethical reasoning to questions facing them in their practice. One of the assumptions underlying the construction of such courses is that the best way to approach the complex ethical questions that lie at the center of professional life is to examine them in light of traditional ethical theories. New feminist research, however, distinguishes a morality of rights and principles (the justice perspective) from a morality of care and responsibility (the care perspective). Each perspective posits a different relationship between morality and the conception of self. The appropriateness of both ethical approaches for professional ethics courses in schools of education is discussed.

Lawler, P. A. (1991). The challenges of the future: Ethical ssues in a changing student population. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 340 305)

The increase in the numbers of adult students studying on college and university campuses has created a new set of ethical and administrative challenges for those institutions. Projections for the nineties suggest 50 percent of enrollment will be adults. Characteristically, adult students perceive themselves to be responsible for their own lives; come to education voluntarily; bring life experience to the classroom; have realistic, practical goals for education; and have increased capacity for certain kinds of learning. Issues facing administrations and faculty include recognizing the diversity in student populations and valuing adult learners. The following nine principles can assist institutions as they serve adult students: (1) create a physical and social climate of respect; (2) encourage collaborative modes of learning; (3) include and build on the student's experiences in the learning process; (4) foster critically reflective thinking; (5) include learning which involves examination of issues and concerns, transforms content into problem situations, and necessitates analysis and development of solutions; (6) value learning for action; (7) generate a participative environment; (8) empower the student through learning; and (9) encourage self-directed learning. These principles respect the autonomy of the adult and the continuing development and growth of the student. Included are 24 references.

Lawler, P., & Fielder, J. (1993). Ethical problems in continuing higher education: Results of a survey. Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 41, 25-33.

Survey of 156 of 700 Association for Continuing Higher Education members revealed most ethical dilemmas in conflicts with supervisors/administrators, faculty, students, and colleagues/staff. No apparent ethical problems were reported by 23 percent. Concerns centered on mistreatment of vulnerable groups such as students and organizational/program integrity.

Lieberman, M. (1988). Professional ethics in public education: An autopsy. Phi Delta Kappan, 70, 159-160.

Formulating and enforcing a code of ethics are characteristics of professional occupations. Such a code has not emerged, and never will, as long as collective bargaining is the dominant employment relations form in education. Unions formed to protect their members cannot accept the "management" responsibilities for disciplining unethical behavior.

Lisman, C. D. (1991). A critical review of the moral dimensionsof teaching. Educational Theory, 41, 227-34.

This review examines education's moral mission (self-governance and community building) and the teaching profession (teacher as moral exemplar and accountability). Teaching encompasses more than ethics in academic subjects; teachers must help students develop capacities of self-direction and recognize the importance of working for the common good.

Liston, P. P., & Zeichner, K. M. (1987). Reflective teacher education and moral deliberation. Journal of Teacher Education, 38, 2-8.

Because the reflective and moral craft approaches to teacher education do not recognize the complexity of moral deliberation, prospective teachers should instead use distinct moral principles to examine teaching issues and to strive to act in morally virtuous ways in their interaction with students.

Lowenstein, M., & Grites, T. J. (1993). Ethics in academic advising NACADA Journal, 13, 53-61.

A discussion of ethics in college academic advising looks at four ideals of ethics (utility, justice, respect for persons, and fidelity), proposes eight ethical principles for advising, and applies them in five hypothetical case studies. The principles are suggested for training purposes, not as a code of ethics.

Malley, P., et al. (1992). Ethical problems in university and college counseling centers: A Delphi study. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 238-44.

Asked college counseling center directors to identify dilemmas that they experienced, or knew others had experienced, in daily practice, and to indicate which ethical problems were most difficult to resolve. Findings from 28 directors revealed that most difficult ethical problems to resolve in university counseling centers were confidentiality issues, dual relationships, and client harm to self or others.

Mangan, K. S. (1995). Coaching the coaches. Chronicle of Higher Education, 41, A35-36.

Increasingly, college athletic coaches are attending programs to help them relate to athletes more effectively on and off the field and deal with issues such as ethics, academic responsibility, careers. Coaches are learning new ways to communicate with students, identify need for help, and participate in the institution's educational mission.

Martinez, D. C. (1987). On the morality of Machiavellian deceivers. Psychology: A Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior, 24, 47-56.

Undergraduates (N=324) completed questionnaires measuring Machiavellianism (interpersonal deception and manipulation) and sociopolitical ideology along dimensions of traditional moralism, new left philosophy, and revolutionary tactics. Analyses showed considerable similarity between low- and high-Machiavellian subjects on sociopolitical and ideological dimensions.

Martinson, D. L. (1994). Doing evil to achieve good: A serious ethical quandary for student journalists and college publication advisers. College Media Review, 33, 19-23.

Examines the debate surrounding the question of using "bad means to achieve a particular good." States that this has significant implications: (1) student publications should play an important role as an inculcator of professional ethical values; and (2) student reporters and editors may be confronted by an actual situation in which such a dilemma is presented.

Materniak, G., & Williams, A. (1987). CAS standards and guidelines for learning assistance programs. Journal of Developmental Education, 11, 12-18.

Presents the standards and guidelines developed by the Council for the Advancement of Standards for Student Services/Development Programs for learning assistance programs, covering mission, program, leadership and management, organization and administration, human resources, funding, facilities, legal responsibilities, campus/community relations, ethics, and evaluation.

McCleary, W. J. (1986). Leading students to recognize writing as n ethical act Paper presented at the 37th Annual Meeting of the Conference on College Composition and Communication, New Orleans, LA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 271 788)

Ethical issues make writing assignments more than academic exercises, especially when the ethical issues involve the writing itself. Such issues arise in every aim and mode of discourse and in every stage of the writing process, from choosing a topic to editing the final draft. Informative discourse must be factual and comprehensive, and have surprise value; readers have the right to know the facts and to be given a full treatment of the subject without sensationalism. The three ethical issues of scientific discourse are definitions, evidence, and rules of interpretation. Each segment of the scientific community has conventions that are understood and followed, and violations are considered unethical. Exploratory discourse involves raising a question, searching for a new answer, and testing the new answer. In this instance, the ethical issue is the need to understand the original paradigm before searching for a new one. Most writing demands constant ethical decisions and students must be taught this to appreciate this aspect of writing.

McPherson, M. S. & Schapiro, M. O. (1993). The search for orality in financial aid. Academe, 79, 23-25.

The relationship between the "need-blind" philosophy of college admission and institutional student financial aid policies is examined. The ethics of providing less-capable students with higher debt and workloads, and other policies that apply differential aid packaging for higher-risk students, are called into question.

McTague, M. (1994). Ethical dilemmas: Defining ethical values on campus. Business Officer, 28, 23-25.

Ethical issues raised by administrative decisions are examined in three specific situations faced by colleges: enrolling students with lower standardized test scores to raise income; shifting of endowment funds from uses specified by donors to other uses; and downsizing that may compromise the institution.

Melady, T. P. (1984). Tests for higher education. AGB Reports, 26, 15-16.

In the next decade, four critical issues will test colleges and universities: (1) reexamination of higher education's fundamental mission; (2) increasing distance between students, faculty, and administration; (3) disregard for ethical values; and (4) high technology's impact on campus.

Merluzzi, T. V., & Brischetto, C. S. (1983). Breach of onfidentiality and perceived trustworthiness of counselors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30, 245-51.

Investigated the impact of breaching confidentiality on perceptions of counselor trustworthiness. Subjects (N=200) heard audiotape counselor-client interactions that culminated in a decision by the counselor to breach or maintain confidentiality. With highly serious client problems, breaching confidentiality was associated with significantly lower trustworthiness ratings.

Merta, R. J., & Sisson, J. A. (1991). The experiential group: An ethical and professional dilemma. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 16, 236-45.

Examines the ethical and professional dilemma encountered by counselor educators when deciding on the most effective way to use an experiential group in their counselor education program, identifies alternatives to and modifications of the traditional experiential group, and proposes recommendations for using an experiential group.

Miller, R. M. (1988). Ethics, development, education. Prospects, 18, 445-58.

Argues that while education in the formal setting has little power to criticize or modify development strategy, it provides a forum for the dissemination of alternative ideas and the presentation of more adequate information. Stresses that old dogma must be superseded by information which will sensitize students to new social attitudes.

Mudore, C. (1988). Computers, ethics, and the school counselor. Clearinghouse, 61, 283-284.

The article discusses the ethics of computer use within school counseling, addressing such ethical concerns as dignity and confidentiality. It finds that the ethical use of computers requires the counselor to 1) use the computer with discrimination, and 2) actively advocate computer use that promotes the rights and privacy of students.

Murphy, P. K. & Townsend, C. D. (1994). Leadership and ethics: A reationship imporant to agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 35, 44-49.

Twenty-four agriculture student leaders answered questions about four vignettes illustrating ethical issues. Although many student leaders did not possess characteristics of ethical leaders, they perceived their decisions as ethical and themselves as successful, despite the fact that honesty, integrity, and moral character did not appear to be part of their success.

Neely, M. A. (1987, March). Decisions of student affairsadministrators: Ethical or legal basis? Paper presented at the Meeting of the American College Personnel Association/National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 279 985)

In higher education, trends in student affairs administration have gone from an "obedience" stage through a "due process" stage and back to a contractual "law and order" stage. Today, being an agent of the institution means paying attention to legal implications because of the threat of lawsuits. The Ethics section from a Council for Advancement of Standards for Student Services/Development 1986 newsletter lists ethical standards covering: (1) confidentiality; (2) the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act regarding student records; (3) human subjects research; (4) fair access to services; (5) conflict of interest; (6) handling of funds; (7) sexual harassment; and (8) limits of expertise. While the Family Privacy Act and sexual harassment law are legal regulations, the other standards are also legal issues, seated in regulations, statutes, or case law. It remains to be determined whether adherence to laws and orders that have a liberal orientation is the same as having higher order moral development, whether it is ethical to call legal guidelines "Ethics," and whether Kohlberg's hierarchy of moral development has relevance in an era when exposure to the larger society as the experiential base for developing principled behavior is confounded by exposure to the liberal laws of the larger society.

Nichols, R., et al. (1987). Concern about ethics and ethical issyesamong professors of instructional systems design and technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 304 099)

With a growing awareness of the importance of ethical issues in the profession of educational communications and technology, the Professional Ethics Committee of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) decided to assess the current thinking of association members toward ethics in the field. The committee wished to conduct research in which a broad base of data might be collected that could reflect membership positions in at least three areas: (1) the degree to which members feel ethics to be important and address them; (2) specific issues deemed to be important; and (3) ways in which an ethical code might be applied. Using a nine-question open-ended questionnaire, a preliminary survey was conducted at a May 1987 meeting of 80 professors of instructional systems design and technology, many of whom were members of AECT. Answers to the responses from the 43 professors who participated in the survey were tallied and analyzed. It was found that, as a group, the respondents perceive that they address ethical issues in a variety of ways, but that more needs to be done; the range of issues identified was quite broad, ranging from the effects of technology on learners in general to the effects on whole cultures; and, although they are concerned about ethical issues, as a group they do not feel that monitoring of practicing professionals is necessary. This paper includes a copy of the questionnaire, an analysis of the responses to each question, and a summary of the results.

Nicklin, J. L. (1994). Cultivating parents. Chronicle of Higher Education, 41, 35,37.

The ethics of using information on college students' applications to determine which parents might be potential donors to the institution are debated. The exchange of information between admissions and development offices without parents' knowledge is seen by some as compromising institutional integrity.

O'Connell, J. K. & Taylor, G. (1994). A code of ethics for physical education majors. Physical Educator, 51, 144-47.

A code of ethics for physical education majors highlights attitudes toward the faculty, peers, and discipline; knowledge of the discipline; ethical behavior; obligations to professional organizations; and obligations to volunteer within the community, to provide service through recruitment of potential physical education students, and to be an exemplary role model.

Pancrazio, S. B., & Aloia, G. F. (1992). Evaluating universitypolicies on plagiarism and other forms of research misconduct. North Central Association Quarterly, 67, 335-42.

Reports research findings on higher education institutions' expectations for academic honesty, indicating that colleges and universities are dealing with a wide range of allegations of misconduct using a variety of administrative structures. Urges colleges to take primary responsibility for ensuring academic integrity on campus.

Pavela, G. & McCabe, D. (1993). The surprising return of honorcodes. Planning for Higher Education, 21, 27-32.

Principles for developing college academic honor codes include developing clear, specific definitions of dishonesty and applying them uniformly; using peer education and influence; appealing to students' personal integrity; reducing temptation to cheat; encouraging active student participation and critical thinking; imposing reasonable but strict penalties; and eliminating proceduralism in case resolution.

Payne, S. L. & Charnov, B. H. (1987). Ethical dilemmas for academic professionals. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

This book on professional ethics is an expansion, elaboration, and redrafting of a Task Force Report completed in 1984 by the Organizational Behavior Division of the Academy of Management. The first chapter discusses utilitarian and egoist views of what is good as they affect the academician's citizenship role. Succeeding chapters discuss ethical issues with respect to teaching, dealing with academic research participants, publishing research, consulting, participating in professional organizations, and relating to administrators and nonacademic groups. Cases that illustrate the ethical issues in each topic are presented, and integrative and miscellaneous cases are discussed in the concluding chapter. Discussion questions are presented at the end of each chapter. Several responses to case questions by current faculty members are included in an appendix.

Perlman, D. H. (1992). Our ethical responsibilities. AGB Reports, 34, 25-29.

Responding to diminished public esteem means intensifying efforts to create an ethical college climate. Educators face these ethical challenges: managing institutions ethically; teaching ethics to students, both in class and in dealing with student behavior in an educational setting; and serving as ethical leaders for the wider community.

Peterson, L. (1986). Teaching academic integrity: A cognitivedevelopmental model based on kohlberg's theory of moral development. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 270 052)

An instructional model to develop academic integrity (honesty) in college students is proposed. Goals are to develop: adherence to the principle of doing one's own work, an understanding for the principle and nature of coauthorship, an understanding and adherence to citation practices, and an understanding of plagiarism. Students should be administered a questionnaire to determine their perceptions of academic dishonesty before undertaking classroom instruction in a library skills course, which will incorporate principles of academic integrity with research skills. Classroom discussions and results of pre- and post-assessment using a questionnaire on academic integrity may be used to emphasize six areas of qualitative change adapted from Kohlberg's model of moral development. The stages illustrate movement from behavior motivated by a desire to avoid punishment to behavior motivated by self-chosen ethical principles. The stages involve the following orientations: punishment-and-obedience, instrumental-relativist, interpersonal concordance or "good boy-nice girl," law and order, social contract/legalistic, and universal, ethical principle. Information is provided on learning objectives, method, materials, assignments, and evaluation.

Phillips, S. D. (Ed.). (1984). Computers in counselor training [Special issue on the use of computers in counseling education]. Counselor Education and Supervision, 24, 133-221.

These nine articles explore the current status and potential contributions of computer technology in counselor training. Articles deal with computer resources and terminology, training applications, issues and limitations, evaluation and research. Also discusses the use of Client 1 and PILOT.

Pipes, R. B. (1982). Research in the university counseling center: Issues and conflicts. Journal of College Student Personnel, 23, 146-154.

Practical problems in doing research include damage to the image of the counseling center, the use of deception or lengthy pretesting procedures in research design, the necessity of justifying the use of staff resources for research, alteration in research procedures after approval has been given, and research-required changes in the operating procedures of the counseling center. Finally, research at university counseling centers involves such ethical questions as confidentiality, the delayed treatment of placebo control groups in research, responsibility for providing the best possible treatment, and the possibility that individuals suffering from psychological stress cannot make voluntary decisions to participate in research.

Powell, J. P. (1983). Professional ethics in academia. Vestes, 26, 29-32.

An academic professional's ethical concerns relate to the areas of research, teaching, the institution, the profession, and the community. Ethical concerns related to an academic institution include maintaining a balance of commitments, avoiding excessive careerism, and expressing views candidly. Ethical responsibilities to a profession include public and rigorous criticism of the efforts of others without expressing doubts about the competence of colleagues; impartiality and integrity in judging papers, research proposals, and applications for positions; and not placing personal or interest-group purposes before the needs of the profession. Community responsibilities include a willingness to use knowledge and skills for a critique of the supporting society.

Post, P. (1989). The use of the ethical judgment scale incounselor education. Counselor Education and Supervision, 28, 229-32.

Examined internal consistency, construct validity, and content validity of the Ethical Judgment Scale using 61 counseling graduate students. Findings indicated need for a revision of the instrument.

Pratt, C. B., & McLaughlin, G. W. (1988, July). Ethical inclinations of future public relations practitioners. Paper presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Portland, OR. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 296 399)

To understand better the ethical inclinations of public relations students, a study examined students' self-reported ethical beliefs and behaviors regarding their college work. In two mid-Atlantic state universities, a questionnaire was administered to communication classes for college juniors and seniors during the winter term 1988, yielding 258 usable responses (70% of the eligible sample). The questionnaire consisted of 26 items in each of three "belief" and two "behavior" situations relating to college work, such as writing term papers, taking tests, and doing homework. Items were measured on five-point response categories ranging from "very unethical" to "not at all unethical," and examined the ethical beliefs of public relations students, their perceptions of the ethical beliefs of most college students, their perceptions of the ethical beliefs of their professors, their self-reported ethical behaviors, and their perceptions of the ethical behaviors of most college students. Factor analysis identified four primary ethical dimensions: (1) traditional behaviors (unethical behaviors among students); (2) normative behaviors (caused when social pressures exert influence on behavior regardless of personal beliefs); (3) collegial-support behaviors (opportunistic behaviors related to the intent to create a supportive environment for involvement in unethical behaviors); and (4) substitution behaviors (for example, taking a test for another student). Results indicated that the students' ethical beliefs were moderately high, but were rated lower than those of their professors and higher than those of their colleagues. (One figure and four tables of data are included, and 61 footnotes are appended.)

Principles for professional conduct for career planning, placement and recruitment. (1985). Bethlehem, PA: College Placement Council. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 271 691)

This booklet presents a set of professional ethics intended to serve as guides for professional conduct for individuals involved in the career planning, placement, and recruitment process. It is noted that compliance with the principles outlined in this guide will ensure an open and free selection of employment opportunities; informed decision-making by candidates; and consideration of the needs of the employer, the campus, and the candidate; and will reduce the potential for abuses by recruiters, colleges and universities, and candidates. The first part of this guide presents principles for career planning. Seven principles for colleges and universities, four principles for employers, and three principles for students/clients are included. The second part of this guide presents principles for placement and recruitment. Included in this section are six principles for colleges and universities, nine principles for employers, and seven principles for candidates. Four recommended problem-solving procedures for handling questionable practices or problems involving recruiters, college or university personnel, or candidates are also included.

Puckett, A. C., et al. (1989). The Duke University program for integrating ethics and human values into medical education. Academic Medicine, 64, 231-34.

Duke University blends cognitive and affective approaches to integrating ethics and human values into medical education. The core of the effort is the establishment of direct and continuing relationships between four advisory deans and their student advisees in small groups throughout the four years of medical school.

Rich, J. M. (1984). Professional ethics in education Sringfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, Publishers.

The purpose of this book is to survey and assess the principle problems and issues of professional ethics at all levels of education--elementary, secondary, and higher--and to present a position on these issues whenever appropriate. The assessment focuses on the ethical grounds for decision making and the likely educational consequences of the decision.

Richmond, J. (1987, March). Legal decisions and moral judgment of student affairs administrators. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American College Personnel Association/National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, Chicago, IL, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 285 100)

Student affairs administrators make discretionary moral and ethical choices regarding the relationship of individual students and of institutional policy to the law. A study was conducted which used Kohlberg's Moral Judgment Development Theory to explore the relationship between the student personnel administrator's moral judgment and his or her ability to concur with court decisions concerning student rights. Voting members (N=188) of the National Association of Student Personnel Administrators completed a short form of the Defining Issues Test and rated six brief vignettes of court cases from the federal law which related to student affairs issues. For each vignette, respondents rated how they believed the court ruled in each case, how strongly they agreed or disagreed with the perceived court decision, and whether or not they themselves had any litigation experience with that particular area of law. The results revealed that subjects had a high overall comfort level with their legal knowledge and their training, and they tended to recommend the same training for others. They reported little actual experience with litigation in common areas of student affairs, along with a very low level of concurrence with actual court decisions.

Rivis, V. (1996). Setting the standards: Implications for higher education of the introduction of occupational standards for advice, guidance and counselling. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 24, 53-66.

Current developments in the delivery of advice, guidance, and counselling to students in higher education are outlined. A range of possible consequences for higher education of the introduction of occupational standards in the advice, guidance, and counselling field is identified. Issues that higher education institutions and awarding bodies will need to address are explored.

Roberts, G. T., et al. (1982). Ethical concerns for counselor educators. Counselor Education and Supervision, 22, 8-14.

Identified four areas of ethical concern in counselor education including personal and counseling relationships with students, joint authorship, and conflict of interest. A survey of counselor educators regarding attitudes and practice in the four areas revealed disagreements concerning ethical behavior. Recommendations for action are included.

Ross, R. G. (1987, November). Ethical considerations for the internship director. Paper presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Boston, MA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 291 114)

Although a growing number of speech communication departments are developing internship programs, the ethical issues involved are rarely addressed, even though communication interns and intern directors are potentially involved in ethical issues merely by their involvement in the discipline of communication. There are three areas to consider from an ethical perspective: program issues, professional issues, and intern and director relationship issues. The discussion of internship ethics evolves primarily from a descriptive ethics perspective, with descriptive ethics considered as "telling people where they are" and making it necessary to "analyze the important and difficult decisions made by the more respected members of that profession." Ethical implications in program areas may be found in students' course preparation, student selection, student placement, recruiting, and evaluation. In the area of professional issues, ethical questions include those of allegiance and legality. Concerning intern relationship issues, the director's role is to accommodate the intern's learning experience, yet this may be affected by conflicting personalities, or by the director's imposition of personal values and ethical perspectives. Because of these concerns, intern directors must become knowledgeable about major ethical perspectives, and assess and define their own ethical perspectives, thereby becoming aware of the influence of those perspectives on the decision-making process. In addition, directors should be responsible to assist interns in establishing ethical guidelines to help in their decision-making. (Ten scenarios presenting samples of interns' ethical concerns are included, and 21 references are appended.)

Schiff, F. & Ryan, M. (1996). Ethical problems in advising theses and dissertations. Journalism & Mass Communication Educator, 51, 23-35.

Reports results of a survey investigating what practices journalism faculty advisers perceive as appropriate and ethical (when advising theses and dissertations) in several potentially troublesome areas: problems with appropriation of student work; problems of joint authorship; appropriateness of adviser input; reasons for writing a thesis or dissertation; and using undergraduate classes for research.

Schubert, G. W., & Schubert, A. F. (1983). A trilogy of academic concerns for the academic advisor of student-athletes: General advising; litigation; and NCAA Proposal 48. NACADA Journal, 3, 11-22.

The student athlete presents unique challenges for academic advisors attempting to meet ethical, legal, and academic standards. This advisor must be knowledgeable about athletic regulations, academic rules, and requirements, and should understand the demands placed on student athletes. The National Collegiate Athletic Association's Proposal 48 has created additional concern about discrimination charges.

Sherry, P., et al. (1991). Ethical beliefs and behaviors of college counseling center professionals. Journal of College Student Development, 32, 350-58.

Examined perception of ethicalness of some common beliefs, frequency of ethical behaviors, and agreement between ethical beliefs and behavior of college counseling center personnel (n=137). Results of the national survey identified areas in which staff were practicing in an ethical fashion and areas in which staff may need clarification of ethical practices.

Slaton, C. D. (1993). Mission and methods of democratizing the classroom. Thresholds in Education, 19, 27-31.

Too many college students seem conditioned (by authoritarian teaching styles) to serve as "clerks" to the decision makers and power holders. To help students learn to think critically and independently, this article advises faculty to create practica based on televotes and mediation training, creative projects (such as monopoly games and guerilla theater), and student mentoring opportunities.

Standards and guidelines for academic advising. (1986). NACADA Journal, 6, 63-66.

Standards and guidelines for academic advising are presented covering mission, program, organization and administration, human resources, funding, facilities, campus and community relations, and ethics.

Stevens, G. E. (1993). Business and law respondents: What isethical behavior? Journal of Education for Business, 68, 348-52.

In a survey of 97 business managers, 141 business students, 46 attorneys, and 98 law students, all groups were consistent in rating their own and peers' ethical beliefs; they perceived peers to have lower ethical values and were aware of competitive market pressures. The idea that new workplace entrants represent a new wave of ethical values was not supported.

Stewart, D. M. (1988). Leadership in a democratic society. College Board Review, 149, 10-13, & 30-31.

A major part of leadership is teaching, and the greatest teachers lead their students toward a solid grasp of ethical and moral standards. Successful leadership is inherently moral because it reflects, embodies, focuses, and gives expression to the lasting values of church or synagogue, family, community, group or nation.

Stoll, S. K., et al. (1995, March). Moral reasoning of divisionIII and Division I athletes: Is there a difference? Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Alliance of Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, Portland, OR. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 382 618)

This study sought to examine the potentially corrupting influences of media attention, money, and the accompanying stress on the moral reasoning of student athletes at both Division I and Division III National College Athletics Association (NCAA) schools. Subjects were 718 nonathletes and 277 randomly selected athletes at a Division I school and 206 nonathletes and 387 athletes at 8 Division III schools. All subjects completed the Hahm-Beller Values Choice Inventory in the Sport Milieu. Scores of nonathletes at both Division I and Division III schools were significantly higher than those of athletes in both Divisions. Results are found to indicate that perhaps it is not money, national prestige, coaches' salaries, or glamor that affects the moral reasoning of athletes, but how competitive activity is viewed. Perhaps the culprit for deficient moral reasoning among student athletes is the exclusionary, selfish, rule-bound perception of competition and the practice of objectifying opponents, dissociating self from personal responsibility, and perceiving sport as a means to personal gain. Sports participation and competition as it is now taught and modeled, in and of itself, may negatively impact moral reasoning, and the involvement of national media and corporate sponsors may not significantly increase this effect. (Contains 29 references.)

Tabachnick, B. G., et al. (1991). Ethics of teaching: Beliefs and behaviors of psychologists as educators. American Psychologist, 46, 506-15.

To study the behaviors and ethical beliefs of psychologists functioning as educators, survey data were collected from 482 American Psychological Association members working primarily in higher education. Participants rated each of 63 behaviors as to how often they practiced them and how ethical they considered them to be.

Terepka, J. B. (1988). Pangloss' wisdom: College counseling as an ethical activity. Journal of College Admissions, 118, 27-31.

This discusses diverse roles and skills needed by counselors and explores the ethics involved in counseling. The article identifies four main roles of college counselors: document processors, advisors, counselors, and advocates. It asserts that counselors must be accurate in roles of document processors and advisors must be honest in roles of counselors and advocates.

VandeCreek, L., & Knapp, S. (1984). Counselors, confidentiality, and life- endangering clients. Counselor Education and Supervision, 24, 51-57.

Reviews the statutory and case law regarding release of client information in three life endangering situations: child abuse, protection of third parties, and suicide. Describes the general principles of confidentiality and some specific legal issues for each of these three areas.

VandeCreek, L., et al. (1987). Client anticipations and preferences for confidentiality of records. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 62-67.

Surveyed client preferences and anticipations about confidentiality of their client records rating the amount of information that they preferred and anticipated would be released by their psychotherapist. Most preferred less information to be released than they anticipated would be. Identified client clusters with unique anticipations and preferences, some preferring absolute confidentiality, others preferring broad release of information.

Vasquez, M. J. T. (1988). Counselor-client sexual contact: Implications for ethics training. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 238-41.

Provides brief overview of models of ethics training and addresses specific strategies for preventing counselor-client sexual contact (knowledge, activities promoting self-awareness, provision of climate that enhances moral development). Discusses responsibilities of training programs, including provision of clear statements of rights and responsibilities of trainees and of due process and grievance procedure for review of impaired trainees.

Walsh, S. M. (1995, March). Toward a Philosophy of Instruction: What Is the Role That Values Should Have in the Curriculum of a College-Level Business Course? Paper presented at the Annual Spring Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English, Minneapolis, MN. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 384 060)

A review of recent educational and theoretical research reveals a consistent concern with at least three moral imperatives: (1) the importance of students' reflecting upon the events, situations, and circumstances in their own learning experiences or in those of others; (2) the importance of asking students to determine the most meaningful moral principles in those events, situations and circumstances; and (3) the importance of asking students to find within themselves justifications for rightness of their own conclusions that can be supported by the moral force of symbols and metaphors of language and thereby articulated or given some form of demonstrable expression. In other words, values run all through every aspect of recent educational research. The question is then posed for future research if values are important in a writing class or in the curriculum development of a business course. The three developmental considerations mentioned earlier seem to be logical extensions of the thinking of Jean Piaget who indicated in 1965 that games can be used effectively to further the moral development of children and young adults. Lawrence Kohlberg (1982) has also maintained that moral development requires that an individual put him or herself in the place of others. However, there is still considerable cause for concern about values. The research of L. W. Anderson and L. O. Pellicer (1990) documents the widespread presence of counterproductive practices in schools--isolating students, pitting students against each other, encouraging public self-criticism, and engaging in teacher-directed, boringly repetitive practices. (Contains 155 references.)

Watras, J. (1986). Will teaching applied ethics improve schools of education? Journal of Teacher Education, 37, 13-16.

Three approaches to improve the ethical behavior of teachers are examined by the author. While different strategies can be useful, the work of Martin Buber, the author feels, offers an approach which can reduce the distance between thought and action.

Watters, J. C., & Zoeller, D. A. (1991). Developing a course inchemical engineering ethics: One class' experiences. Chemical Engineering Education, 25, 68-73.

Discusses several options for the incorporation of minimal coursework involving engineering ethics into an already tightly packed curriculum. Topics include integration versus the stand-alone approach; timeliness of course addition; outline of course content and instructional format; students' reflections and instructor's musings; and an annotated bibliography of instructional materials. (eight references)

Wayne, F. S., & Scriven, J. D. (1991). Teaching ethics inbusinessommunicationlasses. Business Education Forum, 46, 37-39.

Suggests how to implement ethics instruction in business communication classes primarily by using the case study method.

Wayson, K. W. C. (1988, November). Dust in the wind: Ethics in informative speaking. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, San Francisco, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 314 800)

Noting a dearth of research on the ethical use of evidence in forensic competitions, a case analysis details a speech delivered by a contestant who apparently borrowed both ideas and writing from another source. In a prize-winning speech, the contestant used source deception, plagiarism, and "pseudo" sources (attribution to sources without citing articles in which the sources were actually found). Plagiarism was present even to the extent of borrowing jokes from sources without attribution. Analysis of such ethical problems can exemplify what not to do in speech competitions, and can bring the problems to the attention of the organizations that sponsor the events.

Webster, S. (1989). Ethics in the information age: After rules and locks, what do we do? CAUSE EFFECT, 12, 51-53.

The 1989 computer "worm" resulted in some needed attention to computer security. Academic computing has the goal of integrating computing into the fabric of teaching, learning, and research, and must be relatively open. Ways to raise awareness of ethical and social issues are described.

Welfel, E. R., & Lipsitz, N. E. (1983). Ethical orientation of counselors: Its relationship to moral reasoning and level of training. Counselor Education and Supervision, 23, 35-45.

Examined the relationship between stages of ethical orientation and moral reasoning for 63 counselors at four levels of training and explores the relationship between ethical orientation and contributions to professional and social action organizations. Findings indicated that ethical orientation is significantly associated with moral reasoning, counseling experience, and contributions.

Welfel, E. R., & Lipsitz, N. E. (1983). Moral reasoning ofcounselors: Its relationship to level of training and counseling experience. Counseling and Values, 27, 194-203.

Studied influences on counselors' capacity to make mature moral judgments. Counseling students (N=63) at various levels completed a General Information Questionnaire and the Defining Issues Test. Results suggested that actual counseling experience may be more influential in determining moral reasoning capacity than was originally believed.

White, M. J. (1988). A computer-administered examination in professional ethics. Counselor Education and Supervision, 28, 116-20.

Presents rationale and procedure for a computer-administered examination in professional ethics. Discusses advantages and implications of computer-administered testing in professional ethics, noting benefits for instructors and students of professional ethics in counseling and counseling psychology.

Wilson, D. L. (1991). Computer-related ethical problems are focus of conference on values. Chronicle of Higher Education, 38, 31.

Ethical issues related to computer use on college campuses are of increasing concern, and some are studying them for possible solutions. Issues include copyright of instructional and other computer materials, rude and threatening messages on computer communication networks, and teacher behavior as a model for students.

Winsor, J. L. (1987). Peace with justice: What we in communication can offer for the future of higher education. Paper presented at the 73rd Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Boston, MA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 291 112)

Because increased technology too often is an inappropriate means to deal with contemporary social and educational needs, there is a need for academics to stress ethical and ecological values to students who may otherwise expect to seek a "quick fix" for societal ills through "high tech" solutions without sensitivity to the longer range implications and costs for other persons living on the same planet now and in the future. Many departments of communication are positioned to offer a series of courses that could serve as a core for peace studies. For example, courses in intrapersonal, interpersonal, and public communication can be joined with a course in conflict management, audience analysis, and communication ethics to form such a core. Courses outside the Department, in areas such as negotiation, management, and psychology, could extend the minor to a viable major. Finally, Western higher educators must make sharing wisdom as well as technology with developing nations a high priority, requiring a redirection in the emphasis upon bigger (quantitatively) being more important to society than quality of life. Peace, based upon justice for all, is the ultimate goal, and a values-added educational effort is the means to improve curriculum. (Fifteen references are attached.)

Young, R. B. (1988). The profession(alization) of student affairs. NASPA Journal, 25, 262-266.

Professionalization is an ongoing growth process in a world of change rather than a means of static professional status. To apply this concept, student affairs practitioners need to continue their education and modify their interests, skills, and programs in order to better serve emergent nontraditional undergraduate students.