Annotated Bibliographies

1998

As appearing in Spring, 1998, Journal issue 18(1)

Astin, A. & Sax, L. (1998). How Undergraduates Are Affected by Service Participation. Journal of College Student Development, 39(3), 251­63. Keywords: student development, campus environment, retention.

This study investigated the impact of service participation on various aspects of students' educational and personal development.

The sample for this study consisted of 3,450 students (2,287 women and 1,163 men) at 42 undergraduate institutions receiving LSAHE grants that had also participated in the CIRP (Cooperative Institutional Research Program) Freshman Survey between 1990 and 1994. Out of the students included in the study, 2,309 were service participants during the 1994­95 academic year and 1,141 were nonparticipants and made up the control group. The sample of students was obtained through voluntary mail surveys.

A hierarchical regression analysis controlling individual student characteristics, including an inclination to participate in service, and college environmental variable effects was used in this study. The 35 outcome (dependent) variables were classified into three domains of development: civic responsibility, educational attainment (academic development), and life skills. The independent variables consisted of six temporal blocks: a) input characteristics, demographic variables, and a set of service propensity variables; b) student’s major and structural characteristics of institutions (e.g., size, type, selectivity); c) student development; d) generic service variables indicating whether the student engaged in service; e) six interaction terms to test for possible interactions between either service and sex or service and race and ethnicity; and f) additional measures of service participation, such as type, duration, sponsorship, and location of service involvement.

The student volunteer participants (2,309) in this study were involved in the following service types: education (73.1%), human needs (64.5%), environment (53.3%), and public safety (22.1%). Approximately 29% of the participants performed service work as part of a class or course (i.e., service learning), however, 70% were involved in volunteering as part of some other collegiate-sponsored activity. The most common reason—given by 91% of the service participants—for why students were participating in service was “to help other people.” Other frequently given reasons for service participation included “to feel personal satisfaction” (67%), “to improve my community (63%), and “to improve society as a whole” (61%).

The most important predisposing factor found in this study regarding volunteer participation was whether the student volunteered during high school. Other predisposing factors included leadership ability, involvement in religious activities, commitment to participation in community action programs, tutoring other students during high school, being a guest in a teacher’s home, and being female. In addition, those entering freshmen who were most likely to become service participants during college tended to be less materialistic. These predisposing factors and other input variables were statistically controlled before assessing service participation effects on each of the 35 outcome measures.

Results of this longitudinal study indicate that all 35 student outcome measures were favorably influenced by service participation. As a consequence of participation in volunteer service,
students’ academic development, civic responsibility, and life skills were enhanced. Perhaps most revealing about these results is the positive impact that service participation had on academics. Seven of the 10 academic outcomes were positively influenced by at least two different types of service participation. These results clearly refute claims that volunteering takes up students’ time and energy that could be spent on academics. A follow-up questionnaire provided additional information on duration, sponsorship, and location of service. In general, the more time devoted to service, the stronger the positive effect, especially in the areas of civic responsibility and life skill development.
Limitations of the study include small absolute effect sizes (due to the exploratory nature of the study and the wide range of student development outcomes) and a fairly low response rate to the follow-up survey. Nonetheless, the results of this research are significant and provide strong support for the positive effect of participation in service activities during the undergraduate years.

As more instruction and advising occurs on the Web (a hypertext system), understanding the effectiveness of these learning systems becomes more important for academic advisors. This study investigated the effects of navigation maps and learner cognition styles on performance in searches for information, on cognitive map development, and on attitudes within hypertext learning systems.

Using the Web, learners must actively interact with the learning environment and the contents by browsing, selecting, searching, scanning, and so on. Learning may occur when students know not only what information is in a node (site), but also where and how to find information within the web of nodes and the contextual structure or organization of that information. These features and learning requirements sometimes confuse learners navigating through hypertext systems. The problem of disorientation arises from the requirement to know one's location in hyperspace, where one came from, where one should go, and how one should get there. Learners' development of their own internal cognitive maps reduces confusion. Navigation maps are external tools found on Web sites to solve or at least alleviate the disorientation, by showing the learner his or her location in the hypertext system.

Past studies have suggested that field-dependent learners and field-independent learners are theoretically different in a) breaking down complex stimuli into component elements, b) providing structure for ambiguous stimuli, and c) providing a different structure from that inherent in the stimuli complex.
For this study, 121 college freshmen were drawn from an introductory computer course at two mid-sized universities in Taiwan. Students were administered a survey to determine past computer experience, and the Group Embedded Figures Test to determine field dependency or independency. In addition, participants were given an instruction booklet for the introductory computer course and assigned to one of five treatment groups using navigation maps. The five treatment groups used three navigation maps, with one group using all three: no-map, global map, local map, local tracking map, and all maps. Subjects searched particular nodes and browsed through the course Introduction to Computer Networks delivered by the Cooperative Remotely Accessible Learning (CORAL) system.

Cognitive style (field-independency or field-dependency) was significantly related to the development of cognitive maps. Field-independent individuals were better at constructing their own cognitive maps than field-dependent students. No interaction between navigation map type and cognitive style, on any measure was observed. Implications of the study suggest that time allowance and information loading should be taken into account when designing learning tasks for field-dependent learners in a hypertext learning course. However, navigation maps, while significantly helpful, may not help any specific learning style more than another. Navigation maps have significant effect on students’ search steps, search efficiency, and development of cognitive maps.

Ferrari, Joseph; Keane, Sabrina M.; Wolfe, Raymond N.; & Beck, Brett L. (1998). The Antecedents and Consequences of Academic Excuse-making. Research in Higher Education, 39(2), 199­215. Keywords: students, counseling issues, academic achievement.

The study examines the rates of legitimate and fraudulent self-reported academic excuses by academic procrastinators compared to nonprocrastinators at two different types of institutions. Students from two colleges in the northeastern U.S. (N = 546), differing in admission selectivity, comprised the sample in this study. One institution had an average SAT score of 682 for entering freshmen; the other institution had an average SAT score of 995 for entering freshmen. Participants completed both the Procrastination Assessment Scale and the Questionnaire on Academic Excuses.

Overall, academic procrastination was motivated by task aversion for students at the selective college and by fear of task failure and fear of social disapproval for students at the nonselective college. Procrastination was higher among students at the selective college than for the students at the nonselective college. However, the authors suggest, that students at the selective college may also have stronger work ethics and be more motivated to succeed. These students may attribute a lack of effort to actual and perceived poor performance. At the nonselective college only, procrastinators compared to nonprocrastinators more often reported using both legitimate and fraudulent excuses in college and during the current semester. Participants reported that excuses were self-generated for the purpose of gaining more assignment time.

The characteristics of course and instructors likely to promote excuse-making by both procrastinators and nonprocrastinators also were examined. Most students noted that their instructors accepted phoney excuses, rarely requiring proof for the excuses, and that (at least at the nonselective college) they would probably use the excuse again.

The authors suggest that since students may differ in their commitment to academic task completion across settings, college administrators and counselors should consider interventions designed to reduce avoidance in accordance with the student population at their institutions. In short, these findings suggest, that one treatment does not fit all when designing policies to address this issue.

This article reviews 15 studies published between 1977 and 1996 in the career decision-making literature to determine if there are patterns or similarities among subtypes of undecided students.

Three general categories of decided type students and four categories of undecided type students are suggested using a decided-undecided continuum. The author summarizes the characteristics and provides advising considerations for each type.

While the majority of the studies reviewed used career decision status to describe types, there were a variety of personality variables used, with state-trait anxiety, locus of control, self-esteem, vocational, and maturity being the most common ones. There does not appear to be one theoretical framework that adequately explains the subtype phenomenon, however most studies draw upon the tenets of adolescent and adult development theory, including career development and decision making theory. A table is used to summarize these studies providing details by type of study, the variables used, the instruments used to measure the variables and the subtypes identified by each. At least six of the studies included in the article found multiple subtypes of decided and undecided students and point to the importance of defining both groups in order to get a complete picture. Over one half of the studies used a continuum of decidedness to undecidedness to explain subtypes of decidedness.

Results of the studies are organized by decision status: very decided, somewhat decided, unstable decided, tentatively undecided, developmentally undecided, seriously undecided, and chronically indecisive. These categories were selected based on a) the names given to similar subtypes by the researchers, b) the similarities in the descriptions of personality characteristics attributed to each subtype, and c) the researchers' comparisons of their data with the results of previous studies.

While others have emphasized caution in proposing subtypes from the literature due to the complex nature of multidimensional characteristics, the author discusses several advantages to examining the commonalities of these 15 studies on subtypes.

Primarily the identification of subtypes allows for more targeted interventions that focus on the pattern of needs and concerns exhibited by these groups. However, the author points out that students will rarely present as a pure type that leads to one, predetermined solution. Instead, students will have a variety of characteristics and professionals working with these students need to provide an individualized approach, taking into consideration the origins and severity of advisor concerns and diverse personal characteristics, as well as their decided-undecided status.

Future research may be directed towards answering the following questions: 1. How do environmental variables (such as previous work experiences, socioeconomic level, age factors, labor market projects or other important variables) influence subtypes of decided and undecided students? 2. How do different instruments measuring the same variable impact the results among subtypes? 3. Do the different subtypes of decided and undecided students exhibit patterns of movement through the decision-making process?

Analysis of data from a survey of undergraduate students was completed to determine if self-reported experiences with sexual violence varied by gender and Greek affiliation. The purpose of this study was to expand the focus of sexual violence research by examining the frequency of the three types of sexual victimization and sexual aggression (fondling, attempted rape, and rape).

A total of 1,400 questionnaires were distributed to 22 introductory undergraduate classes in a variety of disciplines during a three-month period in the 1991­92 academic year at a large research institution in the mid-Atlantic region. The sample was composed of 1,276 undergraduates (570 males, 706 female). Approximately 24% of the sample (n = 308) were affiliated with a Greek social fraternity or sorority.

The instrument consisted of 75 questions addressing respondents' demographic characteristics, experiences as a victim or perpetrator of sexual violence, and attitudes towards commonly held rape myths. With the population sample limited to a single institution, the authors note a word of caution and the need to view the findings as preliminary.

The authors indicated that 42% of the women in the study reported being a victim of some sort of sexual victimization while enrolled in college. Students associated with a Greek organization were significantly more likely than unaffiliated students to report being a victim of sexual aggression, being a victim of sexual aggression with alcohol, and being a perpetrator of sexual aggression. The association between alcohol and sexual violence was underscored by finding that alcohol was involved in more than three quarters of the most frequently reported experiences of sexual victimization occurring while the respondent was enrolled in college.

The authors argue that the results of the study reinforce the need for student affairs practitioners to continue to direct their attention to developing effective sexual assault policies and sexual assault prevention efforts on campus. Prevention efforts are likely to be effective if they target specific populations, such as Greek organizations, where sexual violence appears disproportionately frequent and if they identify formal and informal practices in these organizations that support sexual victimization and sexual aggression.

After reviewing two major studies, the authors argue that community college administrators must be willing to take the lead on health issues and work with the entire college community in setting norms that support healthy practices by students and discourage dangerous or unhealthy practices. They support their recommendations after reviewing the results of the American Association of Community Colleges survey "Prevention of HIV and Other Serious Health Problems Among Community College Student," and a Center for Disease Control (CDC) study comparing 2- and 4-year institutions and six types of risky behavior in which students engage.

The American Association of Community Colleges survey had 535 community colleges respond. In general the survey found that while finite resources limit community college actions, their leaders can help create healthier campuses. The survey results showed that only 8% of the responding colleges had an official budget for HIV/AIDS education and only 17% had an HIV/AIDS task force or advisory board. Examples of community colleges reaching out and procuring grants and working in partnership with local health departments to improve their health services are provided.

The recommendation to improve health education at community colleges is also based upon the results of a recent CDC study comparing 2- and 4-year institutions and six types of risky behavior in which students engage. According to the CDC study, students in 2-year institutions were more likely than students in 4-year institutions to report a) having sexual intercourse, b) having it against their will, c) having six or more sex partners during their lives, d) failing to use contraception during their last sexual encounter, and e) inconsistent condom use.

Risky sexual behavior is not the only campus health concern highlighted in the CDC survey. Drugs and alcohol play a dangerous role in student life. Among the finds were a) 35% of all students reported current, heavy episodic drinking, b) binge drinking was more frequent among students in 4-year institutions than 2-year colleges, c) more than one-quarter admitted to drinking and driving at least once in 30 days before the survey, and d) lifetime and current marijuana use did not vary by institutional type.

The authors concluded by offering several positive steps that can be taken to develop an effective, low-cost means of intervention at community colleges. To reduce risky student health practices, the key is to educate students and create an environment of supportive health. Examples of peer education are presented and reviewed as positive means of intervention.

This study explores the impact of counseling interventions at two important transition points: the first year and the final year at an institution of higher learning in the United Kingdom. The first-year research focused on student retention and completion rates and the second-year study examined the impact of high levels of psychological distress on academic performance and the effectiveness of counseling interventions in relation to degree completion.

The sample for the first-year study consisted of students who were identified as "high risk" (for withdrawing) from an anonymous questionnaire distributed to incoming undergraduates at the University of Birmingham, UK, in autumn 1993. Of the 44 students identified as "high risk," 16 responded to an open invitation to contact the Counselling Service, 15 students accepted the counseling intervention.

The counseling intervention for the first-year transition point included four components: 1. An initial individual counseling session assessed students' issues and adjustment concerns. 2. With students' permission, the counselor made contact with tutors to ensure that academic and personal support was available within the course program. 3. Students were given the opportunity to attend the Introductory Workshop Programme, four half-day workshops focusing on building confidence, developing study and interpersonal skills, and fostering an active approach to learning. 4. The review counseling session assessed changes in adjustment and the need for further counseling sessions.

Results show strong support for the counseling intervention. Students reported that the workshops helped them develop strategies for managing anxiety and adjusting to the university. At the final counseling session only two students were assessed as needing further counseling due to personal problems. All of the 15 students included in the cohort group completed their degree programs.

Two questionnaires were used with the final year completion study: one assessing the perceived effect of students' problems on their academic performance and the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised (SCL-90-R). The precounseling questionnaire was administered along with the SCL-90-R to 43 consenting final-year students who met the following criteria: a) students in the final year of undergraduate degree program, b) home students (UK base), c) 18­25 years of age, d) traditional level entry, e) new referral to service (1995­96), and f) routine referral via self-referral, doctor, or tutor. (Urgent referrals were excluded.) The postcounseling questionnaire was administered along with the SCL-90-R to the same students immediately following their fourth counseling appointment.

Results indicate that the counseling intervention was effective with this group of students. Of the 43 students, 39 (91%) reported that their academic performance had improved and 42 (98%) of the students indicated that counseling had assisted them in more effectively dealing with their problems. All 43 students in the sample successfully completed their degree program.

The author discusses the important contributions counseling services can make to institutions of higher education, such as the enhancement of students' university experiences, the identification and containment of students who are psychologically vulnerable, and assistance for students to successfully complete their degree programs. These findings also support an integrated institutional approach to student support and guidance. Although these studies were conducted with small samples, note the similarity in issues facing institutions of higher learning in the United Kingdom and those found at universities in the United States.

The author presents an analysis and evaluation of the current state of distance learning programs, as well as guidelines for designing such programs. The author asks, "Why does implementing distant learning face such up hill battles when learning effectiveness and economic worth of it is well established?" He answers that there is a tendency to focus on the technical aspects of distance learning and a failure to address its human aspects.

The author presents a model for distance learning that incorporates both the technical and the human dimension as essential for success. He believes most educators tend to over-emphasize the technical and delivery system, because it is easier to address than the human dimension.

The tendency for humans to resist change is the primary reason for unsuccessful distance learning efforts. Learners, teachers, and administrators must develop new ways of approaching distance learning to address this issue directly. Two other practices have had a negative effect upon distance learning. The first is the tendency to focus on organizational, administrative, financial or technical considerations, rather than student needs. In addition, to be successful, a distance learning system needs to be robust enough to combat inertia and entropy.

The author offers ten suggestions for designing successful distance learning systems: a) focus on the customer, b) minimize pain, c) be content-sensitive, d) use appropriate technology, e) be sure students have the prerequisite capabilities to succeed, f) provide adequate technical support, g) give learners and instructors time to adjust, h) communicate intensively, i) understand the needs of the stake holders, and j) create a positive, motivating environment. As more institutions embrace distance learning and distance advising as a method of providing instruction and advice, these suggestions can be used by advisors and administrators with new initiatives they have and will encounter.

This article discusses a collaborative intervention conducted by faculty members and student affairs staff in an attempt to enhance student retention of academically at-risk students on a regional state-assisted, comprehensive university. "At-risk," was defined as entering first-year students with ACT scores of 20 or lower. During the fall of 1993, 447 at-risk students were identified and telephone calls were made to 201 students. Students were asked about a) academic achievement, b) life planning, and c) personal issues. The remaining 246 students were either not called or called, but not contacted.

When examined against a comparison group with similar demographics, the study group-at statistically significant levels-earned a higher average GPA, earned more credit hours, and had a higher fall-to-spring retention rate. Male students called by men showed the highest positive change in grades, and females called by women had the highest retention rates.

The study suggests an effective and rather inexpensive intervention strategy for assisting at-risk students through a campus-wide collaborative effort. The authors discussed limitations of this study in terms of a single campus sample and its quasi-experimental design.

A review of 107 studies published between 1970 and 1996 was conducted examining research on the prevalence and correlates of cheating among American and Canadian college students. For prevalence of cheating, four types of estimates were found in the literature reviewed: for cheating on examinations, for cheating on homework and other assignments, for plagiarism, and for total cheating (not broken down into categories). To determine the frequency of these different types of cheating from all 107 studies, Hedge's (1994) d statistic, corrected for bias in estimating the population effect size, was calculated for each reported correlate using the DSTAT computer program (Johnson, 1989).

The studies found cheating to be more common in the 1969­1975 and 1986­1996 time periods than between 1976­1985. Among the strongest correlates of cheating were having moderate expectations of success, having cheated in the past, studying under poor conditions, holding positive attitudes toward cheating, perceiving that social norms support cheating, and anticipating a large reward for success. However, an important limitation of the conclusions drawn from this research is that many variables were included in only a limited number of the studies.

A model for antecedents of cheating is proposed and the implications of the model for the identification of students at risk for cheating and controlling cheating are discussed. Some of the general components of the model that influence the expected benefit to cheating include: a) importance of success (expected value of success, grade pressure, grade orientation, and competition for grades), b) need for approval, c) and expected performance (past performance, quality of studying, and test anxiety).

Implications for the study are discussed in terms of institutional-wide interventions, the classroom environment, interventions with potential students at risk for cheating, and ways of controlling cheating during tests.

The focus of this article is on the Mathematics Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS), an instrument used to identify math anxious students within a college population. Concerns about the degree to which the instrument may be prone to a socially desirable response set or style as a function of gender are examined.

The sample (N = 229) included 103 men and 126 women enrolled in sections of introductory psychology at a midsize, Midwestern university. The mean age of the sample was 22.9 years. Participants were administered three surveys: Edwards Social Desirability Scale, Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and MARS. The Edwards consists of 39 items drawn from the MMPI validity scales and the Manifest Anxiety Scale. The Marlowe-Crowne scale consists of 33 items and the MARS has 98 items. The Edwards scale was designed to assess social desirability in relation to psychopathology while the Marlowe-Crowne scale is a measure of social desirability independent of psychopathology. The authors contend that if the MARS is reliable and is largely uncontaminated by a social desirability response set/style, scores from the MARS should correlate significantly (negatively) with the Edwards but not with the Marlowe-Crowne.

Correlation coefficients between the MARS and the two measures of social desirability for gender differences were analyzed. The authors hypothesized that female participants would report significantly higher levels of math anxiety than male participants and that the correlation coefficient between the MARS and Marlowe-Crowne would be significantly weaker for female participants than that found for male participants. No gender difference was anticipated for the relationship between the Edwards and the MARS since the Edwards is not a pure measure of social desirability.

Results of this research indicate that slightly higher levels of math anxiety as assessed by the MARS were reported by female participants than reported by male participants. However, this difference was not statistically significant as had been expected. The MARS was found to vary as a function of gender in assessing math anxiety independently of social desirability. Different patterns of results were indicated for male and female participants. For female participants the MARS appeared to be relatively uncontaminated by a social desirability response set/style. The scale correlated significantly (negatively) with the Edwards (r = ­0.40) but not with the Marlowe-Crowne (r = ­0.17). For male participants, the MARS correlated significantly with both social desirability scales and neither coefficient differed significantly. These results indicate that responses of male participants to the MARS were affected by social desirability.

Based on these findings, the authors caution using the MARS to determine the prevalence of math anxiety among college students (especially male students) or as a tool for selecting students for math anxiety programs/workshop. These results suggest that there may be more male students experiencing math anxiety than what was revealed, since it is less socially acceptable for them to disclose concerns about mathematics.

Research Bibliography Editor: George Steele.

As it appeared in Fall, 1998, Journal issue 18(2)

Conn, Earl. (1998). The Case for the Nine-Hour Course. AAHE Bulletin, 51(4), 7­8. Keywords: faculty, administration.

The author makes a case for redefining 3-hour courses as 9-hour courses. His recommendation changes nothing about class content or faculty load. However, his suggestion might affect peoples' way of thinking about academic responsibilities. His suggestion is simple. Since it is commonly agreed that both professors and students should spend at least two hours outside of class preparing for every hour in class, the time commitment for successful course completion is well established. Both the professor and the student must spend, not 12 or 15 hours, but 36 or 45 hours per week in class and on homework.

Conn's new system might produce the following benefits: a) increased student recognition of the time commitment necessary for academic success, b) clearer view of professors' responsibilities for the learning process, c) increased appreciation by state legislators and board of trustees about students' and faculty members' weekly time obligations, d) and the ability to present teaching and learning efforts to the general public in an understandable way. The author describes these benefits in detail and explains that redefining 3-hour courses as 9-hour courses would consist of truth in advertising.

The professoriat, the producers, too often fail to include everything vital for the total educational package. Students, the consumers, are not interested in course production; they want to know what benefits they will receive from the curricula. What is involved, for both producers and consumers, is a commitment of 9 hours, not 3. While some may view this proposal in a bemused or skeptical light, the author points out the advantages of it for teaching, advising, and overall learning.

The accelerated growth of sport management undergraduate programs that began in the early 1980s has continued into the current decade. In 1998, approximately 180 sport management programs existed in American colleges and universities. These programs are scrutinized by both academicians and sports management professionals because many of them are core physical education curricula, each with a course or two in administration and supervision. A majority of institutions that offer sport management as a major field of study do not require enough management-specific courses to even classify the programs as minor academic areas.

To better monitor the quality of sport management academics, The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and the North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM) implemented an accreditation process to identify sound programs that provide students with the educational background to function effectively in contemporary sport organizations. The standards were authored by 11 sport management academicians and practitioners and were subsequently approved by both organizations. To become an approved sport management program, curricula should contain courses in 10 essential elements related to sport: a) behavioral dimensions, b) management and organizational skills, c) ethics management, d) marketing, e) communications, f) finance, g) economics, h) legal aspects, i) governance, and j) field experience. Programs that pass their evaluation are listed as approved in the NASPE-NASSM Sport Management Program Review Registry.

The authors also review the types of people who choose sport management careers and the kinds of jobs they perform. Suggestions for assessing the quality of different sport management programs are provided.

This study investigated differences in Holland's vocational interest structure across racial and ethnic groups. Five groups were included in the study: African Americans (6,759 men and 1,400 women), Asian Americans (2,970 men and 3,553 women), Mexican Americans (2,555 men and 3,464 women), Native Americans (1,113 men and 1,530 women), and Caucasians (6,637 men and 9,469 women).

The sample consisted of college-bound individuals who completed the revised Unisex Edition of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT) in October 1989 as part of the nationally administered ACT Assessment Program. The UNIACT is a 90-item inventory that categorizes results for each person according to Holland's six general types of vocational interests, RIASEC: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional.

A three-way, individual-differences scaling process was used to produce an overall analysis of the 10 groups separated by ethnicity-race and sex. The results provide evidence that supports the use of Holland's interest structure with people of studied ethnicities and sexes. African American, Asian American, Mexican American, Native American, and Caucasian men and women who participated in this study responded to activities in patterns that corresponded to Holland's model.

These results legitimize the RIASEC arrangement of general occupational themes across racial and ethnic groups and provide solid ground for users of vocational interest inventories that are based on the Holland interest structure.

This article examines the current status of student loans and offers suggestions for how to keep students from burdening themselves with excessive debt.

The good news about the student loan program is that the default rate on loans has been cut in half between 1993­98. However, the amount of student borrowing has increased significantly-almost tripling since the decade began. In 1990, students borrowed $13 billion compared to $38 billion in 1998. The overall effect of increased borrowing has had a negative impact on the default rate, which has been held to under 10%.

Due to the availability of certain types of loans, students are finding their debts more burdensome than in the past. Unsubsidized student loans, in which interest begins accruing as soon as loan funds are disbursed, are being utilized more commonly than ever before. While the government pays the interest on subsidized loans for enrolled students, monthly payments for unsubsidized loans are relatively high. To assist students with their growing debt burdens, Congress has developed alternative repayment options. For example, students can now choose to pay back loans over a longer period-up to 25 years. However, due to the amount of interest that accrues over the extended time period, these alternatives result in a substantial increase in the total cost of a student loan.

According to the General Account Office (GAO), serious problems-from overall mismanagement of loan eligibility and accountability to a lack of accurate data about how the program is operating-exist with the student loan program. The GAO has recommended a specially designed, integrated, information-technology system to improve operations management and information flow.

The author also suggests that attention be paid to certain key indicators of loan repayment behavior. For example, students attending 4-year institutions tend to have the lowest default records. Increased default rates would indicate that individual debt loads are becoming burdensome. In addition, more needs to be known about the effects that college loans have on borrowers during the repayment stage. Fossey notes that many borrowers take relatively high paying jobs instead of rewarding career positions to meet their loan obligations.

In the late 1990s, trade school students were the only population of student borrowers who have been seriously impacted by loan costs. Thousands of vocational school students borrowed money that exceeded the value of their training. Because they defaulted on their loans, they were precluded from further participation in student loan programs. The author points out that if borrowing continues at an increasing pace, the amount of student loan costs may exceed the benefits of higher education for many people. Improvements to the student loan program and on-going monitoring of student debt loads should be implemented to ensure positive outcomes for student borrowers.

For much of this century, transfer and occupational education were considered two discrete functions of the 2-year college that drew student populations with different educational goals than did 4-year institutions. This study was designed to profile North Carolina community college attendees based on their classifications as technical or transfer students. The objectives of this study were a) to determine the extent that technical and college transfer students matriculate to 4-year institutions, b) to describe and compare transfer students from the two classified groups and within different technical areas, and c) to analyze the findings and make predictions about transfer populations.

In fall 1993, the study was composed of 4,753 students who first enrolled at 1 of 16 public universities that constitute the University of North Carolina System (UNCS) after having last attended a North Carolina community college between 1990­93. The 4-year frame was selected because earlier studies revealed that 95% of North Carolina community college students transferred within 4 years of attendance. College transfer codes were given to 3,305 participants and 1,448 students qualified for technical codes. Number of credits completed, full-time or part-time enrollment, or previous attendance at other 2- or 4-year colleges were not factors considered in the participant-selection process. Nineteen variables were collected, including breakout program codes, basic demographic data, attendance and employment patterns while at the community college, time intervals between enrollment the two types schools, and attendance patterns at the 4-year institution.

Results showed that 7 out of 10 students who enrolled in UNCS institutions in the fall of 1993 came from college transfer programs and 3 out of 10 came from technical programs. Both college transfer and technical students in the sample pursued their educations in stops and starts before enrolling in UNCS institutions in the fall of 1993. Less than one third of the students transferred from the community college to the universities in the same year. Following matriculation, both transfer-program and technical-program students were academically successful, and persistence rates were high after one or two semesters at the universities. Researchers also found an unexpected shift in transfer students' attendance patterns. Even though a majority enrolled in community colleges part time, most transfer students attended the receiving institution full time.

Seventy percent of the technical students were from one of five broad technical-program areas: business, engineering, human services, nursing, and a special designation. Differences associated with working part time and full time while in community college existed between these five groups. Also, the number of students who earned Associate's degree varied according to technical program.

The author concludes that students who transfer from community colleges to UNCS institutions may be characterized by their attendance and study patterns: they do not follow a prescribed time frame to graduation or apply narrowly defined study plans in pursuit of Associate's degrees. Rather, they pause before, during, and after attending community college. These transfer students share other characteristics as well. When enrolled at 2-year colleges, they frequently balance part-time academic loads with part-time employment. They are successful following transfer and persist in large numbers. The majority of students in the sample chose majors at UNCS institutions that complemented programs offered at community colleges.

For many years, professionals in fields such as architecture, art, and photography have presented their skills and accomplishments by compiling a portfolio of their work. Attempts to use the portfolio in higher education for documenting performance was supported by the American Council of Education along with other organizations in the early 1990s. Reviews of these efforts are mixed because evaluators have difficulty comparing portfolios of individuals who teach in unrelated disciplines and who have diverse teaching styles.

The authors argue that comparison conflicts would be less likely to arise in the assessment of administrative portfolios. Today, academic administrators are required to function effectively in a much broader range of activities than they were only a few years ago. Tightened budgets, declining enrollments, and increased public demand for accountability in education underscore the importance of excellent performance in these and other activities; hence, the development of a better performance assessment system is appropriate.

Development of an administrative portfolio requires that each administrator's areas of responsibility be identified and that consensus regarding effective administrative performance be reached by the administrator and his or her supervisor. In general, most will agree that effective administrators possess both people and task skills.

The authors propose three primary uses for administrative portfolios in higher education: assessment and development to improve job execution; performance evaluation to conduct salary, continuance, or promotional reviews; and personnel selection. The preparation of the administrative portfolio must include inputs, processes, and outputs. General elements of effective administration are viewed through models proposed by Fayol; Mintzberg; Katz; Kotter; and Luthans, Hodgetts, and Rosenkrantz.

The authors conclude by stating that the administrative portfolio should a) aid administrators in identifying weaknesses and developing plans for self-improvement in those areas; b) provide format and consistency in the evaluation process for administrative retention, promotion, and salary adjustment; and c) document assessment for improving evaluation of applicants for administrative positions.

"Is technology really spurring the 'learning revolution' as O'Bannion [sic] . . . maintains, or is current technology simply the filmstrip of the 1990s?" This is a question asked at Quinebaug Valley Community College, a small New England institution that accommodates approximately 500 full-time equivalent students. The college had already begun to develop a technological infrastructure before it adopted technology in the classroom. Using a case study approach, this article reports on the attempts of two instructors, one in anthropology, the other in English, to integrate technology and instruction and the campus-wide consequences of their efforts.

Generally, in both courses, assignments using the Internet had students identify topics related to both the class and personal or professional interests. While the classes differed in adapting to the use of technology, positive student responses dominated the final evaluations for both courses. Beyond the immediate classroom experience, other unintended consequences began to emerge. In subsequent classes students asked if they could construct Web pages as final projects instead of term papers, use Internet sources in their research papers, and access data from externally maintained data bases. Student demand was probably the first and most important reason for incorporating technology into the curricula. However, faculty leadership was also affected. A second critical component of technology implementation was to make instruction as simple as possible.

Exposing students to technology in a discipline-based class, outside of a technical field, was very important at Quinebaug. By using technology, students realized that technical skills are flexible and transferable and faculty realized the limitations of traditional pedagogies. For example, students did not use the handbooks the English department had prepared in written form. However, they used the department's Web site to find examples of grammar and format information.

Finally, the authors report the most exciting prospect of technology utilization in instruction: changes in students' attitudes towards learning. The process of gathering information and producing Web pages and other student-authored, on-line text altered students' sense of themselves in relationship to the world of knowledge. The authors claimed that using new technical tools to seek and manipulate information and engage in social construction of knowledge helped students shed their passivity towards intellectual work. The authors conclude that the qualitative change in students' relationships to information technology is demanding of faculty-even frightening for some-but dramatic and exhilarating nonetheless.

This article examines how MBA (Master's of Business) students rate certain job factors. Implications for organizations recruiting MBA graduates and on-campus career counselors are discussed.

To assist the large number of students graduating with MBA degrees and the firms recruiting them, a study was conducted to determine the job factor preferences of graduates. The research pool consisted of 173 (115 men and 58 women) MBA students enrolled in graduate business classes at a southern university. Surveys consisted of 23 factors potentially found in workplaces. Participation in the study was voluntary.

Results of the survey indicated that the following items (listed in order of importance) were most valuable in helping MBA students differentiate among prospective employers: opportunity for advancement, challenging or interesting work, positive organizational climate, job security, good training program, and good health insurance. The least important factors were day care provisions, amount of travel required, health or workout facilities, availability of a stock option or ownership program, company-paid future education, and flexible work schedules. The authors point out that these factors were not unimportant to survey participants, but were less valued than others in helping them differentiate among prospective employers. The factors rated least important have particular relevance for organizations that are financially limited. Day care and workout facilities are costly extras that were not rated as important as other company characteristics related to advancement, security, and employer contributions to employees' futures.

The authors contend that employers who are able to provide listed benefits will attract the most qualified candidates. The satisfaction level of employees working in companies that provide the more valued factors will be high. Career counselors need to encourage student applicants to identify job factors that are most important to them, especially when they are faced with multiple employment offers. The authors suggest that future research should examine the preferences of those individuals pursuing other career fields.

Tuel, B. D. & Betz, N. E. (1998). Relationships of Career Self-efficacy Expectations to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Personal Styles Scales. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 31(3), 150­63. Keywords: career advising, learning styles.

This study examines the relationship of self-efficacy for the RIASEC (realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional types proposed by Holland) system, as measured by the Skills Confidence Inventory (SCI), to two other conceptual systems/measures for the understanding of personality-the Personality Style Scales (PSS) and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The authors' goals were to determine the construct validity, conceptual meaning, and counseling uses of career self-efficacy expectations.

The sample consisted of 71 male and 109 female college students (86% Caucasian, 5% African American, 5% Asian American, 3% Hispanic, and 1% Native American) enrolled in two classes: Introductory Psychology and Introduction to Counseling Psychology. Forty-one percent were first-year students, 15% were sophomores, 22% were juniors, and 22% were seniors. The mean age of the sample was 20 years. Students volunteered to participate in the study.

Participants completed the SCI, MBTI, and PSS. The SCI is a 60-item measure of self-efficacy expectations regarding the activities and tasks associated with each of the six Holland themes. The MBTI was designed to measure Jungian personality traits and is scored on four pairs of preference scales: Extraversion versus Introversion, Sensing Perception versus Intuitive Perception, Thinking Judgment versus Feeling Judgment, and Judgment versus Perception. The PSS consists of four scales: Work Style, Learning Environment, Leadership Style, and Risk Taking/ Adventure.

Results indicate strong support for the construct validity of the SCI with respect to Holland's themes. Specifically, 6 out of 10 relationships postulated between the Holland General Confidence Themes, as measured by the SCI and the MBTI, were supported by the data. Overall, the results of this research has provided valuable insight into the relationship between self-efficacy (through the Holland themes) and personal style and personality.

The authors suggest that future investigations should focus on extending this research to other samples that would include heterogeneous groups of working adults. In addition, further research on interests, confidence, and personality should examine related behaviors of individuals to determine whether the instruments are actually assessing the hypothesized constructs.

This research paper applies theoretical concepts related to campus climate to the experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) students. Based on previous studies demonstrating that college environments are often hostile toward nonheterosexual persons, the author suggest that such adverse contexts negatively affect LGB students' educational experiences.

Participants consisted of a stratified random sample of 1,927 students (377 graduate men, 384 graduate women, 518 undergraduate men, and 648 undergraduate women) at a large public university. The survey instrument measured two forms of campus climate: a) General Campus Climate (GCC), referring to perceptions of a variety of campus life qualities such as interactions with instructors, self-confidence, classroom experiences, and campus safety; and b) Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Campus Climate (LGBCC), referring to perceptions about the degree to which the general atmosphere on campus is accepting and supportive (or otherwise) of LGB people and their concerns. Demographic information was also included on the questionnaire including sex, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, number of semesters at the university, and political orientation (liberal to conservative on a 7-point scale). Those who identified as LGB students were also asked to report their subjective level of "outness" or degree to which they are open with others about their sexual orientation.

As hypothesized by the author, LGB students rated academic life (GCC) more negatively than heterosexual students on a number of dimensions. Women and racial ethnic minorities were also more likely to rate the LGB climate as hostile. Other findings indicate that certain heterosexual students-including men, White/European American undergraduates, and self-identified "conservatives" and "Christians"-demonstrate less favorable views toward LGB students in both their perceptions of the LGBCC and in their attitudes toward LGB people.

The results of this study clearly point to the need for improvement in the campus life for nonheterosexual students. The author discusses ways to help make the university environment more receptive to LGB students and firmly states that recognizing the differences in attitudes is the first step toward consciousness raising about the subjective experiences of LGB students. It is suggested that future research include more objective measures of academic achievement (e.g., grade reports for undergraduates and publication records for graduates) to determine if perceptions of academic climate are related to actual academic performance.

Bibliographies appearing in the NACADA Journal are compiled by George Steele and Melinda McDonald.